Akt is a downstream target of NF-kappa B

Hyaluronic acid-based hydrogel microspheres with multi-responsive properties for antibacterial therapy and bone regeneration in Staphylococcus aureus-infected skull defects

This study introduces hyaluronic acid-based (HA) hydrogel microspheres loaded with zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) for the treatment of infectious bone defects. The microspheres were fabricated using a 3D-printing process, with a formulation consisting of 6 wt% HAD (methacrylated HA), 3 wt% AOHA (AMP-conjugated oxidized HA), 1 % BOHA (phenylboric acid-conjugated HA), 0.5 % photoinitiator, and 0.05 % ZnO-NPs. In vitro, the hydrogel microspheres demonstrated significant antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, with colony counts and biofilm inhibition assays showing a marked reduction in bacterial growth after 12 and 24 h. The release of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) was enhanced in acidic conditions and in the presence of hyaluronidase. The microspheres also promoted osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs), as evidenced by increased expression of osteogenic markers (ALP, OCN, OPN, and COL-1). In vivo, the hydrogel microspheres were tested in a rat skull defect model, showing significant bone regeneration, improved angiogenesis, and an anti-inflammatory response. These results indicate that ABOHA@ZnO hydrogel microspheres provide a promising strategy for treating infectious bone defects by combining antimicrobial, osteogenic.

Protein kinases in neurodegenerative diseases: current understandings and implications for drug discovery

Neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis) are major health threats for the aging population and their prevalences continue to rise with the increasing of life expectancy. Although progress has been made, there is still a lack of effective cures to date, and an in-depth understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of these neurodegenerative diseases is imperative for drug development. Protein phosphorylation, regulated by protein kinases and protein phosphatases, participates in most cellular events, whereas aberrant phosphorylation manifests as a main cause of diseases. As evidenced by pharmacological and pathological studies, protein kinases are proven to be promising therapeutic targets for various diseases, such as cancers, central nervous system disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. The mechanisms of protein phosphatases in pathophysiology have been extensively reviewed, but a systematic summary of the role of protein kinases in the nervous system is lacking. Here, we focus on the involvement of protein kinases in neurodegenerative diseases, by summarizing the current knowledge on the major kinases and related regulatory signal transduction pathways implicated in diseases. We further discuss the role and complexity of kinase-kinase networks in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, illustrate the advances of clinical applications of protein kinase inhibitors or novel kinase-targeted therapeutic strategies (such as antisense oligonucleotides and gene therapy) for effective prevention and early intervention.

A Combined Therapy of Pegylated G-CSF with Ciprofloxacin Mitigates Damage Induced by Lethal Ionizing Radiation to the Bone Marrow, Spleen, and Ileum by Increasing AKT Activation but Decreasing IL-18, C3, and miR-34a

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) was found to enhance pegylated G-CSF therapy (PEG, Neulasta®)-induced survival from 30% to 85% after ionizing radiation exposure. This combined therapy significantly mitigated radiation-induced brain hemorrhage through its capability to improve platelet recovery. This study tested whether this combined treatment also mitigated gastrointestinal damage from radiation. B6D2F1 female mice were exposed to 60Co γ radiation. CIP was fed daily to mice for up to 14 days. PEG was injected on day 1, and then weekly up to day 14. For the early time point study, blood, femurs, spleen, and ileum were collected on days 2, 4, 9, and 15 postirradiation. Bone marrow cells were counted; spleen weights and splenocyte counts were measured; and ileum histopathology was examined and analyzed. AKT, ERK, JNK, p38, claudin 2, NF-kB, Bax, Bcl-2, and gasdermin D were measured in ileum lysates using Western blotting while miR-34a was measured by reverse transcription followed by real-time-PCR, and citrulline was measured by colorimetric assay. In serum, interleukin-18 (IL-18) was measured by Luminex assay and complement protein 3 (C3) was detected by ELISA. The bacterial DNA load in livers was measured by real-time PCR. Radiation depleted bone marrow cells in femurs beginning day 2 through day 15 postirradiation, which was mitigated by PEG or CIP+PEG on day 9 through day 15 and by CIP on day 15, respectively. Radiation exposure led to decreased spleen weight on day 2 through day 15, while PEG or CIP+PEG significantly mitigated the reduction on day 9 through day 15. Radiation exposure reduced splenocyte counts on day 2 through day 15 postirradiation, but that was mitigated by PEG or CIP+PEG on day 15. Ileum histology showed that radiation decreased villus height on day 2 through day 15; CIP mitigated the reduction on day 15, whereas PEG+CIP mitigated it on day 2 through 15. Villus widths were increased on day 2 through day 15, while PEG+CIP effectively decreased them on day 4 through day 15. Crypt depth was reduced by radiation on day 2, but returned to the baseline on day 4 through 15. CIP or CIP+PEG transiently increased the depth only on day 4. Crypt counts were reduced by radiation on days 2 and 4, but returned to the baseline on days 9 and 15, regardless of individual drugs or combinations. Citrulline data confirmed the villus height recovery. Radiation significantly increased pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-18 on days 4 and 9, which was mitigated by PEG alone or PEG+CIP, but not by CIP alone. Radiation increased C3 on day 9 in ileum and serum. The serum C3 was positively associated with the serum IL-18 levels and negatively correlated with the crypt depth. Radiation-induced decreases in claudin 2 (a tight junction marker) in ileum and increases in bacterial DNA in livers were mitigated by PEG+CIP. Radiation did not reduce NF-kB and its activation but reduced Bcl-2 expression, which was not significantly recovered by any individual drug or combination. However, the PEG and CIP combination significantly decreased NF- kB and BAX. In contrast, radiation increased miR-34a and cleaved gasdermin D, which CIP+PEG effectively mitigated. This was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. The results taken together suggest that PEG+CIP combined treatment was effective in mitigating the radiation-induced bone marrow, spleen, and ileum injury. The mitigative effect of this combined treatment was mediated by increases in G-CSF levels that suppress miR-34a, thereby probably leading to decreased gasdermin D-mediated pyroptosis.

The LILRB family in hematologic malignancies: prognostic associations, mechanistic considerations, and therapeutic implications

The leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptor B (LILRB) proteins, characterized by their transmembrane nature and canonical immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motifs (ITIM) signaling, play a pivotal role in maintaining immune homeostasis and are implicated in the pathogenesis of various disease states. This comprehensive review will focus on the intricate involvement of the LILRB family in hematologic malignancies. These receptors have emerged as valuable diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in leukemia, lymphoma, and myeloma. Beyond their prognostic implications, LILRBs actively shape the immune microenvironment and directly influence the disease pathogenesis of hematologic malignancies. Furthermore, their identification as potential therapeutic targets offer a promising avenue for precision medicine strategies in the treatment of these disorders. Currently, multiple LILRB directed therapies are in the preclinical and clinical trial pipelines. This review underscores the multifaceted role of the LILRB family in hematologic malignancies, highlighting their significance from diagnostic and prognostic perspectives to their broader impact on disease pathophysiology and as valuable therapeutic targets.

RIPK2 Is Crucial for the Microglial Inflammatory Response to Bacterial Muramyl Dipeptide but Not to Lipopolysaccharide

Receptor-interacting serine/threonine protein kinase 2 (RIPK2) is a kinase that is essential in modulating innate and adaptive immune responses. As a downstream signaling molecule for nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1), NOD2, and Toll-like receptors (TLRs), it is implicated in the signaling triggered by recognition of microbe-associated molecular patterns by NOD1/2 and TLRs. Upon activation of these innate immune receptors, RIPK2 mediates the release of pro-inflammatory factors by activating mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB). However, whether RIPK2 is essential for downstream inflammatory signaling following the activation of NOD1/2, TLRs, or both remains controversial. In this study, we examined the role of RIPK2 in NOD2- and TLR4-dependent signaling cascades following stimulation of microglial cells with bacterial muramyl dipeptide (MDP), a NOD2 agonist, or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a TLR4 agonist. We utilized a highly specific proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) molecule, GSK3728857A, and found dramatic degradation of RIPK2 in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Importantly, the PROTAC completely abolished MDP-induced increases in iNOS and COX-2 protein levels and pro-inflammatory gene transcription of Nos2, Ptgs2, Il-1β, Tnfα, Il6, Ccl2, and Mmp9. However, increases in iNOS and COX-2 proteins and pro-inflammatory gene transcription induced by the TLR4 agonist, LPS, were only slightly attenuated with the GSK3728857A pretreatment. Further findings revealed that the RIPK2 PROTAC completely blocked the phosphorylation and activation of p65 NF-κB and p38 MAPK induced by MDP, but it had no effects on the phosphorylation of these two mediators triggered by LPS. Collectively, our findings strongly suggest that RIPK2 plays an essential role in the inflammatory responses of microglia to bacterial MDP but not to LPS.

Mechanistic insights into the alterations and regulation of the AKT signaling pathway in diabetic retinopathy

In the early stages of diabetic retinopathy (DR), diabetes-related hyperglycemia directly inhibits the AKT signaling pathway by increasing oxidative stress or inhibiting growth factor expression, which leads to retinal cell apoptosis, nerve proliferation and fundus microvascular disease. However, due to compensatory vascular hyperplasia in the late stage of DR, the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)/phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/AKT cascade is activated, resulting in opposite levels of AKT regulation compared with the early stage. Studies have shown that many factors, including insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), VEGF and others, can regulate the AKT pathway. Disruption of the insulin pathway decreases AKT activation. IGF-1 downregulation decreases the activation of AKT in DR, which abrogates the neuroprotective effect, upregulates VEGF expression and thus induces neovascularization. Although inhibiting VEGF is the main treatment for neovascularization in DR, excessive inhibition may lead to apoptosis in inner retinal neurons. AKT pathway substrates, including mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), forkhead box O (FOXO), glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3)/nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), are a research focus. mTOR inhibitors can delay or prevent retinal microangiopathy, whereas low mTOR activity can decrease retinal protein synthesis. Inactivated AKT fails to inhibit FOXO and thus causes apoptosis. The GSK-3/Nrf2 cascade regulates oxidation and inflammation in DR. NF-κB is activated in diabetic retinas and is involved in inflammation and apoptosis. Many pathways or vital activities, such as the Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways, interact with the AKT pathway to influence DR development. Numerous regulatory methods can simultaneously impact the AKT pathway and other pathways, and it is essential to consider both the connections and interactions between these pathways. In this review, we summarize changes in the AKT signaling pathway in DR and targeted drugs based on these potential sites.

Impact of age on liver damage, inflammation, and molecular signaling pathways in response to femoral fracture and hemorrhage

Background

Trauma causes disability and mortality globally, leading to fractures and hemorrhagic shock. This can trigger an irregular inflammatory response that damages remote organs, including liver. Aging increases the susceptibility to dysregulated immune responses following trauma, raising the risk of organ damage, infections, and higher morbidity and mortality in elderly patients. This study investigates how aging affects liver inflammation and damage post-trauma.

Methods

24 male C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into four groups. Twelve young (17-26 weeks) and 12 aged (64-72 weeks) mice were included. Mice further underwent either hemorrhagic shock (trauma/hemorrhage, TH), and femoral fracture (osteotomy) with external fixation (Fx) (THFx, n=6) or sham procedures (n=6). After 24 hours, mice were sacrificed. Liver injury and apoptosis were evaluated using hematoxylin-eosin staining and activated caspase-3 immunostaining. CXCL1 and infiltrating polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL) in the liver were assessed by immunostaining, and concentrations of CXCL1, TNF, IL-1β, and IL-10 in the liver tissue were determined by ELISA. Gene expression of Tnf, Cxcl1, Il-1β, and Cxcl2 in the liver tissue was determined by qRT-PCR. Finally, western blot was used to determine protein expression levels of IκBα, Akt, and their phosphorylated forms.

Results

THFx caused liver damage and increased presence of active caspase-3-positive cells compared to the corresponding sham group. THFx aged group had more severe liver injury than the young group. CXCL1 and PMNL levels were significantly higher in both aged groups, and THFx caused a greater increase in CXCL and PMNL levels in aged compared to the young group. Pro-inflammatory TNF and IL-1β levels were elevated in aged groups, further intensified by THFx. Anti-inflammatory IL-10 levels were lower in aged groups. Tnf and Cxcl1 gene expression was enhanced in the aged sham group. Phosphorylation ratio of IκBα was significantly increased in the aged sham group versus young sham group. THFx-induced IκBα phosphorylation in the young group was significantly reduced in the aged THFx group. Akt phosphorylation was significantly reduced in the THFx aged group compared to the THFx young group.

Conclusion

The findings indicate that aging may lead to increased vulnerability to liver injury and inflammation following trauma due to dysregulated immune responses.

Molecular treatment trajectories within psoriatic T lymphocytes: a mini review

Multiple biological processes in mammalian cells are implicated in psoriasis (Ps) development and progression, as well as in the pathogenic mechanisms associated with this chronic immune-mediated inflammatory disease (IMID). These refer to molecular cascades contributing to the pathological topical and systemic reactions in Ps, where local skin-resident cells derived from peripheral blood and skin-infiltrating cells originating from the circulatory system, in particular T lymphocytes (T cells), are key actors. The interplay between molecular components of T cell signalling transduction and their involvement in cellular cascades (i.e. throughout Ca2+/CaN/NFAT, MAPK/JNK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, JAK/STAT pathways) has been of concern in the last few years; this is still less characterised than expected, even though some evidence has accumulated to date identifying them as potential objects in the management of Ps. Innovative therapeutic strategies for the use of compounds such as synthetic Small Molecule Drugs (SMDs) and their various combinations proved to be promising tools for the treatment of Ps via incomplete blocking, also known as modulation of disease-associated molecular tracks. Despite recent drug development having mainly centred on biological therapies for Ps, yet displaying serious limitations, SMDs acting on specific pathway factor isoforms or single effectors within T cell, could represent a valid innovation in real-world treatment patterns in patients with Ps. Of note, due to the intricate crosstalk between intracellular pathways, the use of selective agents targeting proper tracks is, in our opinion, a challenge for modern science regarding the prevention of disease at its onset and also in the prediction of patient response to Ps treatment.

Ranitidine as an adjuvant regulates macrophage polarization and activates CTLs through the PI3K-Akt2 signaling pathway

Adjuvants are an indispensable component of vaccines, but there are few adjuvants for human vaccines. H2 receptor blockers, inhibiting gastric acid secretion, have immune enhancement effects. Ranitidine (RAN) is a water-soluble H2 receptor blocker, and whether it has an immune-enhancing effect is still unknown. In this study, flow cytometry, western blotting, and immunofluorescence methods were used to analyze whether RAN could activate macrophage polarization to the M1 phenotype in vivo and in vitro. Here, we found that the M1 inflammatory cytokine levels and surface markers in RAW264.7 cells were upregulated by NF-κB activation, possibly through the PI3K-Akt2 signaling pathway, after RAN treatment. Endocytic function was also enhanced by feedback regulation of Akt2/GSK3β/Dynmin1 signaling. Furthermore, to evaluate the adjuvant function of RAN, we used OVA plus RAN as a vaccine to inhibit the growth of B16-OVA tumors in mice. We also found that in the RAN adjuvant group, macrophage polarization to M1, Th1 cell differentiation, and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activation were significantly upregulated. The tumor growth of mice was inhibited, and the survival rate of mice was significantly improved. This study provides new evidence for the mechanism by which RAN activates the immune response and is expected to provide a new strategy for the research and development of tumor vaccine adjuvants.

Osteopontin Splicing Isoforms Contribute to Endometriotic Proliferation, Migration, and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Endometrial Epithelial Cells

Osteopontin (OPN) isoforms, including OPNb and OPNc, promote malignancy and may contribute to the pathogenesis of endometriosis, a benign disorder with multiple characteristics resembling malignant tumors. In our experiments, OPNb and OPNc were significantly overexpressed in both endometriosis and adenomyosis compared to the normal endometrium. Upregulation of CD44v and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process was also present in endometriotic lesions. Overexpression of OPNb and OPNc splicing variants in endometriotic cells evoked morphological changes, actin remodeling, cell proliferation, cell migration, and EMT through binding OPN ligand receptors CD44 and αvβ3, subsequently activating the PI3K and NF-ĸB pathways. We elucidated the causal role of OPN splice variants in regulating endometriotic cell growth, which may promote the development of OPN-targeted therapies for patients suffering from endometriotic disorders.

Methylglyoxal enhances the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells via Akt phosphorylation

Methylglyoxal (MGO) is predominantly produced as a by-product of the glycolysis pathway. The glyoxalase system effectively removes it in a healthy organism. However, this process is impaired, and MGO level is elevated in people with diabetes. MGO's effects on proliferation were mostly studied in cancer cells, and the data in other cell types are limited. This study inspected the proliferative capacity of MGO in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), which have a crucial role in atherosclerosis and restenosis. The roles of ERK1/2 MAPK and Akt phosphorylations in proliferation were determined. Telmisartan, irbesartan, and NF-κB inhibitor JSH-23's roles in protecting the cells from MGO-induced proliferation were also investigated. Primary VSMCs were isolated from the rat aorta. The proliferation was spectrophotometrically measured by using a tetrazolium salt (Wst-1). The cells were cultured in standard media (SM, glucose conc. 5.5 mM) or high glucose media (HGM, glucose conc. 25 mM; an in vitro model of hyperglycemia). ERK1/2 MAPK and Akt phosphorylations were determined by the western blot method. MGO triggered the proliferation at 24, 48, and 72 hrs in SM and 48 and 72 hrs in HGM. Low doses of MGO such as 1-10 µM can induce proliferation. The phosphorylated ERK1/2 MAPK and Akt participated in MGO-induced proliferation. Telmisartan, irbesartan, and JSH-23 effectively alleviated the proliferation and Akt phosphorylation. MGO could proliferate VSMCs even at low doses. Moreover, hypertensive diabetic patients might benefit from a sartan family drug to protect VSMCs from MGO-induced proliferation.

Involvement of the NF-κB and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways in cell death triggered by stypoldione, an o-quinone isolated from the brown algae Stypopodium zonale

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a clonal plasma cell malignancy that remains incurable to date. Thus, the aims of this study were to evaluate the involvement of the NF-κB and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways in the cytotoxicity of stypoldione, an o-quinone isolated from the brown algae Stypopodium zonale, in MM cells (MM1.S). The cytotoxic effect was evaluated in MM1.S cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by MTT assay. The stypoldione reduced the cell viability of MM1.S cells in a concentration and time-dependent manner (IC50 in MM.1S from 2.55 to 5.38 μM). However, it was also cytotoxic to PBMCs, but at a lower range. Additionally, no significant hemolysis was observed even at concentration up to 10 times the IC50 . Apoptotic cell death was confirmed by cell morphology and Annexin V-FITC assay. Stypoldione induced intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis by increasing FasR expression and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, inverting the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and inducing ΔΨm loss, which resulted in AIF release and caspase-3 activation. It also increased Ki-67 and survivin expression and inhibited the NF-κB and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways. These results suggest that stypoldione is a good candidate for the development of new drugs for MM treatment.

Bile reflux and hypopharyngeal cancer (Review)

Laryngopharyngeal reflux, a variant of gastroesophageal reflux disease, has been considered a risk factor in the development of hypopharyngeal cancer. Bile acids are frequently present in the gastroesophageal refluxate and their effect has been associated with inflammatory and neoplastic changes in the upper aerodigestive tract. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies have provided direct evidence of the role of acidic bile refluxate in hypopharyngeal carcinogenesis and documented the crucial role of NF-κB as a key mediator of early oncogenic molecular events in this process and also suggested a contribution of STAT3. Acidic bile can cause premalignant changes and invasive squamous cell cancer in the affected hypopharynx accompanied by DNA damage, elevated p53 expression and oncogenic mRNA and microRNA alterations, previously linked to head and neck cancer. Weakly acidic bile can also increase the risk for hypopharyngeal carcinogenesis by inducing DNA damage, exerting anti-apoptotic effects and causing precancerous lesions. The most important findings that strongly support bile reflux as an independent risk factor for hypopharyngeal cancer are presented in the current review and the underlying mechanisms are provided.

MicroRNA-29b participates in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition of retinal pigment epithelial cells through p-p65

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells is considered to be the main mechanism of proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR). Our previous study demonstrated that microRNA-29b (miR-29b) and its target protein kinase B (Akt2) played vital roles in this process. miR-29b, a mesenchymal marker α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and the epithelial marker E-cadherin were assessed in epiretinal membranes of patients with PVR. The potential mechanism of miR-29b and EMT was also investigated. The expression levels of miR-29b, E-cadherin, and α-SMA in PVR epiretinal membranes were measured using quantitative PCR. The expression levels of Akt2, phosphorylated (p)-Akt2, p65, p-p65, and Snail in ARPE-19 cells were assessed using western blotting. The expression levels of miR-29b were positively correlated with E-cadherin mRNA expression, while an inverse correlation was observed between miR-29b and α-SMA mRNA expression in epiretinal membranes of patients with PVR. When miR-29b was transfected into ARPE-19 cells, the expression levels of Akt2, p-Akt2, p-p65 and Snail were downregulated. shRNA-Akt2 inhibited p-p65 and Snail expression, while the NF-κB inhibitor BAY11-7082 reduced Snail expression. The Akt2/p-p65/Snail pathway may be the underlying mechanism of miR-29b in EMT of RPE cells. The results of the present study may provide a new strategy for prevention and therapy of PVR.

PPARγ Agonists: Emergent Therapy in Endometriosis

Endometriosis is one of the major gynecological diseases of reproductive-age women. This disease is characterized by the presence of glands and stroma outside the uterine cavity. Several studies have shown the major role of inflammation, angiogenesis, adhesion and invasion, and apoptosis in endometriotic lesions. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying endometriotic mechanisms still remain unclear and therapies are not currently efficient. The introduction of new agents can be effective by improving the condition of patients. PPARγ ligands can directly modulate these pathways in endometriosis. However, data in humans remain low. Thus, the purpose of this review is to summarize the potential actions of PPARγ agonists in endometriosis by acting on inflammation, angiogenesis, invasion, adhesion, and apoptosis.

The multi-kinase inhibitor TG02 induces apoptosis and blocks B-cell receptor signaling in chronic lymphocytic leukemia through dual mechanisms of action

The constitutive activation of B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling, together with the overexpression of the Bcl-2 family anti-apoptotic proteins, represents two hallmarks of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) that drive leukemia cell proliferation and sustain their survival. TG02 is a small molecule multi-kinase inhibitor that simultaneously targets both of these facets of CLL pathogenesis. First, its inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase 9 blocked the activation of RNA polymerase II and transcription. This led to the depletion of Mcl-1 and rapid induction of apoptosis in the primary CLL cells. This mechanism of apoptosis was independent of CLL prognostic factors or prior treatment history, but dependent on the expression of BAX and BAK. Second, TG02, which inhibits the members of the BCR signaling pathway such as Lck and Fyn, blocked BCR-crosslinking-induced activation of NF-κB and Akt, indicating abrogation of BCR signaling. Finally, the combination of TG02 and ibrutinib demonstrated moderate synergy, suggesting a future combination of TG02 with ibrutinib, or use in patients that are refractory to the BCR antagonists. Thus, the dual inhibitory activity on both the CLL survival pathway and BCR signaling identifies TG02 as a unique compound for clinical development in CLL and possibly other B cell malignancies.

The emerging role of Wnt5a in the promotion of a pro-inflammatory and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

Wnt5a is the prototypical activator of the non-canonical Wnt pathways, and its overexpression has been implicated in the progression of several tumor types by promoting cell motility, invasion, EMT, and metastasis. Recent evidences have revealed a novel role of Wnt5a in the phosphorylation of the NF-κB subunit p65 and the activation of the NF-κB pathway in cancer cells. In this article, we review the molecular mechanisms and mediators defining a Wnt5a/NF-κB signaling pathway and propose that the aberrant expression of Wnt5a in some tumors drives a Wnt5a/NF-κB/IL-6/STAT3 positive feedback loop that amplifies the effects of Wnt5a. The evidences discussed here suggest that Wnt5a has a double effect on the tumor microenvironment. First, it activates an autocrine ROR1/Akt/p65 pathway that promotes inflammation and chemotaxis of immune cells. Then, Wnt5a activates a TLR/MyD88/p50 pathway exclusively in myelomonocytic cells promoting the synthesis of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and a tolerogenic phenotype. As a result of these mechanisms, Wnt5a plays a negative role on immune cell function that contributes to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and would contribute to resistance to immunotherapy. Finally, we summarized the development of different strategies targeting either Wnt5a or the Wnt5a receptor ROR1 that can be helpful for cancer therapy by contributing to generate a more immunostimulatory tumor microenvironment.

MicroRNA-520c-3p suppresses vascular endothelium dysfunction by targeting RELA and regulating the AKT and NF-κB signaling pathways

Endothelial injury, which can cause endothelial inflammation and dysfunction, is an important mechanism for the development of atherosclerotic plaque. This study aims to investigate the functional role of miR-520c-3p in vascular endothelium during inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to detect miR-520c-3p expression in in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) after treatment with platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). Furthermore, the effects of miR-520c-3p overexpression and silencing on cell proliferation, adhesion, and apoptosis were assessed. Bioinformatics analysis and Biotin-labeled miRNA pull-down assay were used to confirm the targets of miR-520-3p. Then, the effects of miR-520c-3p on AKT and NF-κB signaling pathways were detected by western blot. Herein, we observed that the expression level of miR-520c-3p was downregulated in HUVECs under PDGF stimulation. Overexpression of miR-520c-3p not only decreased cell adhesion but also promoted proliferation and inhibited apoptosis to protect the viability of endothelial cells. It was confirmed that RELA is the target of miR-520c-3p. MiR-520c-3p inhibited the protein phosphorylation of AKT and RELA, and si-RELA reversed the promotion of AKT and RELA protein phosphorylation by anti-miR-520c-3p. In summary, our study suggested that miRNA-520c-3p targeting RELA through AKT and NF-κB signaling pathways regulated the proliferation, apoptosis, and adhesion of vascular endothelial cells. We conclude that miR-520c-3p may play an important role in the suppression of endothelial injury, which could serve as a biomarker and therapeutic target for atherosclerosis.

Anti-Inflammatory and Photoaging-Protective Effects of Olea europaea through Inhibition of AP-1 and NF- κ B Pathways

Olea europaea is a beneficial edible plant with a number of biological activities like anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antithrombic, antihyperglycemic, and anti-ischemic activities. The mechanisms behind the antiphotoaging and anti-inflammatory effects of Olea europaea are not fully understood. To investigate how an ethanol extract of Olea europaea (Oe-EE) exerts these effects, we explored its activities in human keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. We assessed the anti-oxidant effects of Oe-EE via 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′ -azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) assays and measured the expression levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), cyclooxygenase-2, interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α , and moisturizing factors. Antiphotoaging and anti-inflammatory mechanisms of Oe-EE were explored by assessing signaling molecule activation via immunoblotting. Oe-EE treatment decreased the mRNA expression level of MMPs, cyclooxygenase-2, IL-6, and TNF-α and restored type I collagen, filaggrin, and sirtuin 1 expression in UVB-irradiated cells. Furthermore, Oe-EE inhibited the activities of several activator protein 1 regulatory enzymes, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and inhibited nuclear factor (NF)-κ B pathway signaling proteins. Therefore, our results indicate that Oe-EE has photoaging-protective and anti-inflammatory effects.

Core clock gene Bmal1 deprivation impairs steroidogenesis in mice luteinized follicle cells

Luteinization is the event of corpus luteum formation, a way of follicle cells transformation and a process of steroidogenesis alteration. As the core clock gene, Bmal1 was involved in the regulation of ovulation process and luteal function afterwards. Till now, the underlying roles of luteinization played by Bmal1 remain unknown. To explore the unique role of Bmal1 in luteal steroidogenesis and its underlying pathway, we investigated the luteal hormone synthesis profile in Bmal1 knockout female mice. We found that luteal hormone synthesis was notably impaired, and phosphorylation of PI3K/NfκB pathway was significantly activated. Then, the results were verified in in vitro cultured cells, including isolated Bmal1 interference granulosa cells (GCs) and theca cells (TCs), respectively. Hormones levels of supernatant culture media and mRNA expressions of steroidogenesis-associated genes (star, Hsd3β2, cyp19a1 in GCs, Lhcgr, star, Hsd3β2, cyp17a1 in TCs) were mutually decreased, while the phosphorylation of PI3K/NfκB was promoted during in vitro luteinization. After PI3K specific-inhibitor LY294002 intervention, mRNA expressions of Lhcgr and Hsd3β2 were partially rescued in Bmal1 interference TCs, together with significantly increased androstenedione and T synthesis. Further exploration in TCs demonstrated BMAL1 interacted directly but negatively with NfκB p65 (RelA), a subunit which was supposed as a mediator in Bmal1-governed PI3K signaling regulation. Taken together, we verified the novel role of Bmal1 in luteal steroidogenesis, achieving by negative interplay with RelA-mediated PI3K/NfκB pathway.

Myosin light chain kinase regulates intestinal permeability of mucosal homeostasis in Crohn's disease

Introduction: Researchers have investigated the potential role of intestinal permeability in Crohn's disease pathogenesis. Intestinal permeability is usually mediated by cytoskeleton and intercellular junctions. The myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) is an enzyme that activates the myosin light chain to exert its function related to cytoskeleton contraction and tight junction regulation. The correlation between MLCK and Crohn's disease pathogenesis has been consistently proven. Areas covered: This study aims to expand the understanding of the regulation and function of MLCK in Crohn's disease. An extensive literature search in the MEDLINE database (via PubMed) has been performed up to Oct. 2020. The roles of MLCK in tight junction activation, intestinal permeability enhancement, and cell signal regulation are comprehensively discussed. Expert opinion: Targeting the MLCK-related pathways such as TNF-α in CD treatment has been put into clinical use. More accurate targeting such as MLCK and TNFR2 has been proposed to reduce side effects. MLCK may also have the potential to become biomarkers in fields like CD activity. With the application of cutting age research methods and tools, the MLCK research could be accelerated.

Imatinib exhibit synergistic pleiotropy in the prevention of colorectal cancer by suppressing proinflammatory, cell survival and angiogenic signaling

Recent global incidences and mortality rates have placed colorectal cancer (CRC) at third and second positions, respectively, among both sexes of all ages. Resistance during chemotherapy is a big problem in the treatment and disease-free survival of CRC patients. Discovery of new anticancer drug(s) is a time taking process and therefore, invites studies for repurposing the known therapeutics. The present study was conceived to analyze the anticancer role of Imatinib in experimental CRC at early stages. Different experimental procedures e.g. tumor incidences or histoarchitectural changes, gene and protein expression analysis, estimations of intracellular calcium, ROS, mitochondrial membrane potential, apoptotic index and molecular docking was performed to support the hypothesis. It was observed that Imatinib could function as an immunomodulator by breaking the feed-back loop between the proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and TNF-α) and transcription factors (NF-κB, Jak3/Stat3) knowingly involved in increased cell proliferation during tumorigenesis via activating different intracellular signaling. Also, Imatinib could independently deregulate the other cell survival and proliferation signaling e.g. PI3-K/Akt/mTOR, Wnt/β-catenin and MAPK. Proinflammatory cytokines orchestrated intracellular signaling also involve angiogenic factors to be upregulated during CRC which were also seemed to be independently suppressed by Imatinib. Restoration of physiological apoptosis by increasing the release of intracellular calcium to generate ROS thereby reducing the mitochondrial membrane potential for the release of cytochrome c and activation of caspase-3 was also reported with Imatinib administration. Thus, it may be suggested that Imatinib show synergistic pleiotropy in suppressing the interlinked tumorigenic signaling pathways independently.

Autophagy regulates trophoblast invasion by targeting NF-κB activity

Preeclampsia is one of the most serious complications of pregnancy, affecting 5-10% of parturients worldwide. Recent studies have suggested that autophagy is involved in trophoblast invasion and may be associated with defective placentation underlying preeclampsia. We thus aimed to understand the mechanistic link between autophagy and trophoblast invasion. Using the two most commonly used trophoblast cell lines, JEG-3 and HTR-8/SVneo, we inhibited autophagy by ATG5 and beclin-1 shRNA. Conversion of LC3-II was evaluated in ATG5 and beclin-1 knock-down cells in the presence of the lysosomal protease inhibitors E-64d and pepstatin A, to detect the efficiency of autophagy inhibition. Upon autophagy inhibition, we measured cell invasion, activity of NF-κB and related signaling pathways, MMP-2, MMP-9, sFlt-1, and TNF-α levels. Autophagy inhibition increased the invasiveness of these trophoblastic cell lines and increased Akt and NF-κB activity as well as p65 expression. Of note, an NF-κB inhibitor significantly attenuated the trophoblast invasion induced by autophagy inhibition. Autophagy inhibition was also associated with increased MMP-2 and MMP-9 levels and decreased the production of sFlt-1 and TNF-α. Collectively, our results indicate that autophagy regulates trophoblast invasiveness in which the NF-κB pathway and MMP-2, MMP-9, sFlt-1 and TNF-α levels are affected.

The in vivo preventive and therapeutic properties of curcumin in bile reflux-related oncogenesis of the hypopharynx

Bile at strongly acidic pH exerts a carcinogenic effect on the hypopharynx, based upon recent pre‐clinical studies that support its role as an independent risk factor. We recently demonstrated in vitro that curcumin can prevent oncogenic profile of bile in human hypopharyngeal cells, by inhibiting NF‐κB. We hypothesize that topically applied curcumin to the hypopharynx can similarly block early oncogenic molecular events of bile, by inhibiting NF‐κB and consequently altering the expression of genes with oncogenic function. Using Mus musculus (C57Bl/6J), we topically applied curcumin (250 μmol/L; three times per day; 10 days) to the hypopharynx, 15 minutes before, 15 minutes after or in combination with bile acids (pH 3.0). Immunohistochemical analysis and qPCR revealed that topically applied curcumin either before, after or in combination with acidic bile exposure significantly suppressed its induced NF‐κB activation in regenerating epithelial cells, and overexpression of Rela, Bcl2, Egfr, Stat3, Wnt5a, Tnf, Il6, Ptgs2. Akt1 was particularly inhibited by curcumin when applied simultaneously with bile. We provide novel evidence into the preventive and therapeutic properties of topically applied curcumin in acidic bile‐induced early oncogenic molecular events in hypopharyngeal mucosa, by inhibiting NF‐κB, and shaping future translational development of effective targeted therapies using topical non‐pharmacologic inhibitors of NF‐κB.

Crosstalk between Akt and NF-κB pathway mediates inhibitory effect of gas6 on monocytes-endothelial cells interactions stimulated by P. gingivalis-LPS

Correlation between periodontitis and atherosclerosis is well established, and the inherent mechanisms responsible for this relationship remain unclear. The biological function of growth arrest‐specific 6 (gas6) has been discovered in both atherosclerosis and inflammation. Inhibitory effects of gas6 on the expression of inflammatory factors in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) stimulated by Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharide (P. gingivalis‐LPS) were reported in our previous research. Herein, the effects of gas6 on monocytes‐endothelial cells interactions in vitro and their probable mechanisms were further investigated. Gas6 protein in HUVECs was knocked down with siRNA or overexpressed with plasmids. Transwell inserts and co‐culturing system were introduced to observe chemotaxis and adhering affinity between monocytes and endothelial cells in vitro. Expression of gas6 was decreased in inflammatory periodontal tissues and HUVECs challenged with P. gingivalis‐LPS. The inhibitory effect of gas6 on chemotaxis and adhesion affinity between monocytes and endothelial cells was observed, and gas6 promoted Akt phosphorylation and inhibited NF‐κB phosphorylation. To our best knowledge, we are first to report that gas6 inhibit monocytes‐endothelial cells interactions in vitro induced by P. gingivalis‐LPS via Akt/NF‐κB pathway. Additionally, inflammation‐mediated inhibition of gas6 expression is through LncRNA GAS6‐AS2, rather than GAS6‐AS1, which is also newly reported.

Grape seed proanthocyanidin extract alleviates arsenic-induced lung damage through NF-κB signaling

IMPACT STATEMENT

Arsenic-induced respiratory inflammatory damage is an important occupational hazard in many areas of the world, particularly in underdeveloped and developing countries. Effective treatments are lacking and expensive. Therefore, the aim of the study was to examine the anti-inflammatory effects of proanthocyanidin (PC) and the molecular mechanisms in vivo and in vitro. The present study showed that PC extracted from grape seed could attenuate the lung damage in a mouse model of arsenic poisoning. The effects were observed at the level of lung histology and inflammasome expression. This study suggests that a natural compound is effective in mitigating the toxic effects of arsenic in the lungs, providing an inexpensive and more readily accessible method for treating arsenic exposure in some parts of the world.

Ghrelin, a novel therapy, corrects cytokine and NF-κB-AKT-MAPK network and mitigates intestinal injury induced by combined radiation and skin-wound trauma

BACKGROUND

Compared to radiation injury alone (RI), radiation injury combined wound (CI) further enhances acute radiation syndrome and subsequently mortality. We previously reported that therapy with Ghrelin, the 28-amino-acid-peptide secreted from the stomach, significantly increased 30-day survival and mitigated hematopoietic death by enhancing and sustaining granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) and keratinocyte chemoattractant (KC) in the blood and bone marrow; increasing circulating white blood cell depletion; inhibiting splenocytopenia; and accelerating skin-wound healing on day 30 after CI. Herein, we aimed to study the efficacy of Ghrelin on intestinal injury at early time points after CI.

METHODS

B6D2F1/J female mice were exposed to 60Co-γ-photon radiation (9.5 Gy, 0.4 Gy/min, bilateral), followed by 15% total-body-surface-area skin wounds. Several endpoints were measured: at 4-5 h and on days 1, 3, 7, and 15.

RESULTS

Ghrelin therapy mitigated CI-induced increases in IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17A, IL-18, KC, and TNF-α in serum but sustained G-CSF, KC and MIP-1α increases in ileum. Histological analysis of ileum on day 15 showed that Ghrelin treatment mitigated ileum injury by increasing villus height, crypt depth and counts, as well as decreasing villus width and mucosal injury score. Ghrelin therapy increased AKT activation and ERK activation; suppressed JNK activation and caspase-3 activation in ileum; and reduced NF-κB, iNOS, BAX and Bcl-2 in ileum. This therapy recovered the tight junction protein and mitigated bacterial translocation and lipopolysaccharides levels. The results suggest that the capacity of Ghrelin therapy to reduce CI-induced ileum injury is mediated by a balanced NF-κB-AKT-MAPK network that leads to homeostasis of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines.

CONCLUSIONS

Our novel results are the first to suggest that Ghrelin therapy effectively decreases intestinal injury after CI.

Curcumin and Endometriosis

Endometriosis is one of the main common gynecological disorders, which is characterized by the presence of glands and stroma outside the uterine cavity. Some findings have highlighted the main role of inflammation in endometriosis by acting on proliferation, apoptosis and angiogenesis. Oxidative stress, an imbalance between reactive oxygen species and antioxidants, could have a key role in the initiation and progression of endometriosis by resulting in inflammatory responses in the peritoneal cavity. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying this disease are still unclear and therapies are not currently efficient. Curcumin is a major anti-inflammatory agent. Several findings have highlighted the anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic properties of curcumin. The purpose of this review is to summarize the potential action of curcumin in endometriosis by acting on inflammation, oxidative stress, invasion and adhesion, apoptosis and angiogenesis.

Antioxidant, Antiproliferative and Apoptosis-Inducing Efficacy of Fractions from Cassia fistula L. Leaves

: Cassia fistula L. is a highly admirable traditional medicinal plant used for the treatment of various diseases and disorders. The present study was performed to divulge the antioxidant, antiproliferative, and apoptosis-inducing efficacy of fractions from C. fistula leaves. The hexane (CaLH fraction), chloroform (CaLC fraction), ethyl acetate (CaLE fraction), n-butanol (CaLB fraction), and aqueous (CaLA fraction) were sequentially fractionated from 80% methanolic (CaLM extract) of C. fistula leaves. The CaLE fraction was fractionated using column chromatography to yield a pure compound, which was characterized as Epiafzelechin (CFL1) based on 1H, 13C, and DEPT135 NMR. Among these fractions, CaLE and isolated CFL1 fractions exhibited an effective antioxidant potential in Ferric ion reducing power, (2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline -6-sulfonic acid)) cation radical scavenging, and nitric oxide radical scavenging assays. Epiafzelechin was investigated for its antiproliferative effects against MG-63 (osteosarcoma), IMR-32 (neuroblastoma), and PC-3 (prostate adenocarcinoma), and was found to inhibit cell proliferation with a GI50 value of 8.73, 9.15, and 11.8 μM respectively. MG-63 cells underwent apoptotic cell death on treatment with Epiafzelechin as the cells showed the formation of apoptotic bodies, enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, mitochondrial membrane depolarization along with an increase in early apoptotic cell population analyzed using Annexin V-FITC/PI double staining assay. Cells showed cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase accompanied by a downregulation in the expression levels of p-Akt (Protein kinase B), p-GSK-3β (Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta), and Bcl-xl (B-cell lymphoma-extra large) proteins. RT-PCR (Real time-polymerase chain reaction) analysis revealed downregulation in the gene expression level of β-catenin and CDK2 (cyclin-dependent kinases-2) while it upregulated the expression level of caspase-8 and p53 genes in MG-63 cells.

MicroRNA-31 regulating apoptosis by mediating the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/protein kinase B signaling pathway in treatment of spinal cord injury

Apoptosis is a highly conservative energy demand program for non-inflammatory cell death, which is extremely significant in normal physiology and disease. There are many techniques used for studying apoptosis. MicroRNA (miRNA) is closely related to cell apoptosis, and especially microRNA-31 (miR-31) is involved in apoptosis by regulating a large number of target genes and signaling pathways. In many neurological diseases, cell apoptosis or programmed cell death plays an important role in the reduction of cell number, including the reduction of neurons in spinal cord injuries. In recent years, the phosphoinositol 3-kinase/AKT (PI3K/AKT) signal pathway, as a signal pathway involved in a variety of cell functions, has been studied in spinal cord injury diseases. The PI3K/AKT pathway directly or indirectly affects whether apoptosis occurs in a cell, thereby affecting a significant intracellular event sequence. This paper reviewed the interactions of miR-31 target sites in the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, and explored new ways to prevent and treat spinal cord injury by regulating the effect of miR-31 on apoptosis.

Role of mTORC1 in intestinal epithelial repair and tumorigenesis

mTORC1 signaling is the prototypical pathway regulating protein synthesis and cell proliferation. mTORC1 is active in stem cells located at the base of intestinal crypts but silenced as transit-amplifying cells differentiate into enterocytes or secretory cells along the epithelium. After an insult or injury, self-limiting and controlled activation of mTORC1 is critical for the renewal and repair of intestinal epithelium. mTORC1 promotes epithelial cell renewal by driving cryptic stem cell division, and epithelial cell repair by supporting the dedifferentiation and proliferation of enterocytes or secretory cells. Under repeated insult or injury, mTORC1 becomes constitutively active, triggering an irreversible return to stemness, cell division, proliferation, and inflammation among dedifferentiated epithelial cells. Epithelium-derived cytokines promulgate inflammation within the lamina propria, which in turn releases inflammatory factors that act back on the epithelium where undamaged intestinal epithelial cells participate in the pervading state of inflammation and become susceptible to tumorigenesis.

Protein kinase D3 promotes gastric cancer development through p65/6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-biphosphatase 3 activation of glycolysis

Although serine/threonine-protein kinases are found to participate in a wide range of cancer progression, the involvement of protein kinase D3 (PRKD3) in gastric cancer has not been explored. Here, we investigated the role of PRKD3 in gastric cancer (GC) and its potential mechanisms. PRKD3 was over-expressed in gastric cancer tissues and cells. In vitro, PRKD3 ectopic expression accelerated the proliferation and growth of GES-1, SGC7901 and MKN-28 cells. By contrast, PRKD3 knockdown suppressed the proliferation of SGC7901 and MKN-28 GC cells. In vivo, xenograted tumorigenesis was blunted by PRKD3 silencing. Mechanistically, PRKD3 up-regulated 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-biphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3) and activated glycolysis as shown by increased glucose consumption and lactate production. Knockdown of PFKFB3 suppressed the glycolysis in gastric cancer cells with highly expressed PRKD3 but not in PRKD3 silenced cells. PRKD3 over-expression induced phosphorylation of p65 at serine 536 was critical for the up-regulation of glycolytic enzyme PFKFB3. Furthermore, PRKD and PFKFB3 inhibitor suppressed the viability of GC cells. Our results suggest that targeting PRKD3/p65/PFKFB3 cascade maybe a promising therapeutic strategy for gastric cancer.

The role of inflammation, oxidative stress, angiogenesis, and apoptosis in the pathophysiology of endometriosis: Basic science and new insights based on gene expression

Endometriosis is a frequent and chronic illness in young women which could be defined by the existence of endometrial stroma and glands outside of the normal site of the lining of the uterus. It has painful symptoms. The advanced stage of endometriosis may lead to gynecological malignancies, such as ovarian cancer, and other complications, including infertility. However, its exact physiopathology is not well known. Recent studies have shown the possible roles of inflammation along with oxidative stress. Additionally, angiogenesis and apoptosis dysregulation contribute to endometriosis pathophysiology. Therapeutic strategies and continuing attempts, to conquer endometriosis should be done regarding molecular signaling pathways. Thus, the present review summarizes current studies and focuses on molecular mechanisms.

Role of ANTXR1 in the regulation of RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation and function

Anthrax toxin receptor 1 (ANTXR1) is a transmembrane protein with an extracellular domain which is deeply associated with the process of bone formation and plays an important role in angiogenesis. However, there have been no reports investigating the effects of ANTXR1 on bone metabolism mediated by the two types of bone cells, osteoclasts, and osteoblasts. The aim of this study is to reveal the role of ANTXR1 in the differentiation and function of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. We found that ANTXR1 positively regulated the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption with no effects on osteoblast differentiation by performing gain- and loss-of-function studies. During ANTXR1-mediated regulation of osteoclastogenesis, phosphorylation of early signal transducers such as c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), Akt, inhibitor of kappa B (IκB), and phospholipase C gamma 2 (PLCγ2) was affected, which in turn altered the mRNA and protein levels of c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1). In addition, genetic manipulation of ANTXR1 in bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) modulated the capillary-like tube formation in HUVECs via secretion of two angiogenic factors, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A). These results elucidated the importance of ANTXR1 in osteoclast differentiation and functional activity, as well as, osteoclast-mediated angiogenesis of endothelial cells. Taken together, we propose that ANTXR1 might be a promising candidate for gene therapy for bone metabolic diseases and further, might potentially serve as an important biomarker in the field of bone metastasis associated with vascularization.

Inhibition of the protein kinase IKKepsilon attenuates neuropathic pain in mice

Inhibitor-kappaB kinase epsilon (IKKε, Ikbke) constitutes an NF-κB activating kinase with high homology to the classical I-κB kinase subunits, IKKα and IKKβ. It is expressed in nociceptive neurons in the spinal cord and in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and involved in inflammatory nociception. Under inflammatory conditions, IKKε deficient mice show significantly less nociceptive behavior in comparison to wild type mice associated with reduced activation of NF-κB and attenuated NF-κB-dependent gene expression. The role of IKKε in neuropathic pain has not been investigated so far. We applied the spared nerve injury (SNI) model of neuropathic pain in mice and found an increased expression of IKKε in the spinal cord, the DRGs and the sciatic nerve after induction of neuropathy. Genetic depletion of IKKε or pharmacological inhibition by amlexanox led to a significant reduction of mechanical hyperalgesia and cold allodynia in comparison to control mice. Transcription factor ELISA indicated that the effects are mediated by reduced activation of NF-κB. Furthermore, immunofluorescence staining, qPCR and Western Blot analyses revealed that the decreased pain-like behavior was associated with a reduced activation of microglia, diminished expression of c-fos as well as a decreased activation of MAP-Kinases. In summary, we conclude that IKKε modulates mechanisms of neuropathic pain by activating NF-κB. The administration of IKKε inhibitors might therefore constitute a new and promising approach for the therapy of neuropathic pain.

Withaferin A attenuates bleomycin-induced scleroderma by targeting FoxO3a and NF-κβ signaling: Connecting fibrosis and inflammation

Scleroderma is an inflammatory autoimmune disease which begins with inflammation due to tissue injury and advances to progressive accumulation of extracellular matrix resulting in scarring and hardening of the skin. Inflammation is a salutary response to tissue injury caused by varied factors. While inflammation is required for systematic wound healing, dysregulated chronic inflammation often leads to tissue scarring. Prominent role of inflammation in pathology and physiology makes it a double edge sword. The objective of this study was to investigate the role of Withaferin A (WFA), a steroidal lactone from Withania somnifera in a 28-day murine model of bleomycin-induced experimental scleroderma. Withaferin A was administered at two doses 2 and 4 mg/kg intraperitoneally for 28 days. At the time of study termination, we observed significant reduction in dorsal skin thickness. Our results indicate that WFA was able to sufficiently suppress pro-inflammatory phase of fibrosis, TGF-β/Smad signaling and also significantly repressed fibroblast conversion to myofibroblasts. Additionally, our study also demonstrated that WFA modulates FoxO3a-Akt-dependent NF-κβ/IKK-mediated inflammatory cascade, which is a prime signaling pathway in fibrogenesis. The findings of this study are persuasive of WFA as an antifibrotic agent with promising therapeutic effects in scleroderma. © 2018 BioFactors, 44(6):507-517, 2018.

Nitrosporeusine analogue ameliorates Chandipura virus induced inflammatory response in CNS via NFκb inactivation in microglia

Chandipura Virus (CHPV), a negative-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Rhabdoviridae family, has been previously reported to bring neuronal apoptosis by activating several factors leading to neurodegeneration. Following virus infection of the central nervous system, microglia, the ontogenetic and functional equivalents of macrophages in somatic tissues gets activated and starts secreting chemokines, thereby recruiting peripheral leukocytes into the brain parenchyma. In the present study, we have systemically examined the effect of CHPV on microglia and the activation of cellular signalling pathways leading to chemokine expression upon CHPV infection. Protein and mRNA expression profiles of chemokine genes revealed that CHPV infection strongly induces the expression of CXC chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) and CC chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) in microglia. CHPV infection triggered the activation of signalling pathways mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinases, including p38, JNK 1 and 2, and nuclear factor κB (NF-kappaB). CHPV-induced expression of CXCL10 and CCL5 was achieved by the activation of p38 and NF-kappaB pathways. Considering the important role of inflammation in neurodegeneration, we have targeted NF-kappaB using a newly synthesised natural product nitrosporeusine analogue and showed incapability of microglial supernatant of inducing apoptosis in neurons after treatment.

Disulfiram reduces metastatic osteosarcoma tumor burden in an immunocompetent Balb/c or-thotopic mouse model

Introduction

The overall survival rate of patients with osteosarcoma (OS) and pulmonary metastases has remained stagnant at 15–30% for several decades. Disulfiram (DSF) is an FDA-approved aldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitor that reduces the metastatic phenotype of OS cells in vitro. Here we evaluate its in vivo efficacy, as compared to doxorubicin chemotherapy, in a previously-validated orthotopic model of metastatic OS.

Results

All treatment groups displayed a significantly reduced quantitative OS metastatic burden compared with controls. The metastatic burden of Lo DSF-treated animals was equivalent to the DXR group. Ninety-five percent of control animals displayed evidence of metastatic disease, which was significantly greater than all treatment groups.

Discussion

Disulfiram treatment resulted in a reduced burden of OS metastatic disease compared with controls. This was statistically-equivalent to doxorubicin. No additive effect was observed between these two therapies.

Materials and Methods

One-hundred twenty immunocompetent Balb/c mice received proximal tibia paraphyseal injections of 5 × 10⁵ K7M2 murine OS cells. Therapy began three weeks after injection: saline (control), low-dose disulfiram (Lo DSF), high-dose disulfiram (Hi DSF), doxorubicin (DXR), Lo DSF + DXR, and Hi DSF + DXR. Transfemoral amputations were performed at 4 weeks. Quantitative metastatic tumor burden was measured using near-infrared indocyanine green (ICG) angiography.

Acid ceramidase inhibition sensitizes human colon cancer cells to oxaliplatin through downregulation of transglutaminase 2 and β1 integrin/FAK-mediated signalling

Acid ceramidase (ASAH1) has been implicated in the progression and chemoresistance in different cancers. Its role in colon cancer biology and response to standard chemotherapy has been poorly addressed so far. Here, we have investigated ASAH1 expression at the protein level in human colon cancer cell lines and tissues from colon cancer patients, and have examined in vitro the possible link between ASAH1 expression and functional activity of p53 protein whose inactivation is associated with the progression from adenoma to malignant tumour in colon cancer. Finally, we have explored the role of ASAH1 in response and resistance mechanisms to oxaliplatin (OXA) in HCT 116 colon cancer cells. We have demonstrated that human colon cancer cells and colorectal adenocarcinoma tissues constitutively express ASAH1, and that its expression is higher in tumour tissues than in normal colonic mucosa. Furthermore, we found an inverse correlation between ASAH1 expression and p53 functional activity. Obtained data revealed that ASAH1 was involved in HCT 116 cell response to OXA and that anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, anti-migratory and anti-clonogenic effects of OXA could be significantly increased by combination treatment with ASAH1 inhibitor carmofur. Increased OXA sensitivity was associated with downregulation of signalling involved in acquired resistance to OXA in colon cancer, in particular transglutaminase 2 and β1 integrin/FAK, which resulted in the suppression of NF-κB and Akt. Thus, combination of OXA with ASAH1 inhibitors could be a promising strategy to counter chemoresistance and improve treatment outcome in advanced colon cancer.

Treatment Effects of Ischemic Stroke by Berberine, Baicalin, and Jasminoidin from Huang-Lian-Jie-Du-Decoction (HLJDD) Explored by an Integrated Metabolomics Approach

Berberine, baicalin, and jasminoidin were major active ingredients of Huang-Lian-Jie-Du-Decoction (HLJDD), a famous prescription of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which has been used for the treatment of ischemic stroke. The aim of the present study was to classify their roles in the treatment effects of ischemic stroke. A rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was constructed to mimic ischemic stroke and treatment effects of berberine, baicalin, and jasminoidin, and HLJDD was assessed by neurologic deficit scoring, infarct volume, histopathology, immunohistochemistry, biochemistry, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and Western blotting. In addition, the ¹H NMR metabolomics approach was used to assess the metabolic profiles, which combined with correlation network analysis successfully revealed metabolic disorders in ischemic stroke concerning the treatment of the three principal compounds from HLJDD for the first time. The combined results suggested that berberine, baicalin, and jasminoidin are responsible for the effectiveness of HLJDD on the treatment of ischemic stroke by amelioration of abnormal metabolism and regulation of oxidative stress, neuron autophagy, and inflammatory response. This integrated metabolomics approach showed its potential in understanding the function of complex formulae and clarifying the role of its components in the overall treatment effects.

Modulation of platelet-derived microparticles to adhesion and motility of human rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes

Platelet-derived microparticles (PMPs) are closely associated with disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and contribute to the inflammatory process. Rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes (RA-FLSs) play important roles in the progression of joint destruction. The aim of this study is to demonstrate whether PMPs affect the adhesion and motility of RA-FLSs. Our data indicated that PMPs promoted migration, invasion and adhesion to extracellular matrix (ECM) of RA-FLSs. Further study showed that PMPs up-regulated the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP1) and increased the level of phosphorylation of NF-κB (p-NF-κB) and Erk (p-Erk) in RA-FLSs. These results suggest that PMPs promote RA-FLSs adhesion and motility presumably by increasing MMP1 via activating Erk-mediated NF-κB pathway.

A Review of the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Development and Progression of Cardiac Remodeling

Pathological molecular mechanisms involved in myocardial remodeling contribute to alter the existing structure of the heart, leading to cardiac dysfunction. Among the complex signaling network that characterizes myocardial remodeling, the distinct processes are myocyte loss, cardiac hypertrophy, alteration of extracellular matrix homeostasis, fibrosis, defective autophagy, metabolic abnormalities, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Several pathophysiological stimuli, such as pressure and volume overload, trigger the remodeling cascade, a process that initially confers protection to the heart as a compensatory mechanism. Yet chronic inflammation after myocardial infarction also leads to cardiac remodeling that, when prolonged, leads to heart failure progression. Here, we review the molecular pathways involved in cardiac remodeling, with particular emphasis on those associated with myocardial infarction. A better understanding of cell signaling involved in cardiac remodeling may support the development of new therapeutic strategies towards the treatment of heart failure and reduction of cardiac complications. We will also discuss data derived from gene therapy approaches for modulating key mediators of cardiac remodeling.

Mechanistic evaluation of gastroprotective effects of Kangfuxin on ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in mice

This study was designed to evaluate the gastroprotective effect of Kangfuxin (KFX), a Chinese patent medicine constituent isolated from American cockroach, on ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in mice and to elucidate the potential mechanisms of the effect involved. According to the results, mice treated with alcohol appeared obvious gastric mucosal injury, while treatment with Cimetidine (a positive control) and KFX significantly relieved the damage, along with decreased oxidative stress and apoptosis indexes. Subsequently, we conducted a label-free quantitative proteomic (LFQ) and found that NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathway participated in gastroprotective effect of KFX. Furthermore, Western blot analysis revealed that KFX treatment inhibited the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, greatly reduced the phosphorylation level of IκB and repressed the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65, which demonstrated that KFX inhibited the activation of NF-κB pathway. Meanwhile, the PI3K/AKT pathway was also involved in regulating the anti-inflammation effect. These findings define for the first time that the gastroprotective effects of KFX against gastric ulcer can be attributed to its role in NF-κB inhibition.

Progenitor Cells for Arterial Repair: Incremental Advancements towards Therapeutic Reality

Coronary revascularization remains the standard treatment for obstructive coronary artery disease and can be accomplished by either percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Considerable advances have rendered PCI the most common form of revascularization and improved clinical outcomes. However, numerous challenges to modern PCI remain, namely, in-stent restenosis and stent thrombosis, underscoring the importance of understanding the vessel wall response to injury to identify targets for intervention. Among recent promising discoveries, endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) have garnered considerable interest given an increasing appreciation of their role in vascular homeostasis and their ability to promote vascular repair after stent placement. Circulating EPC numbers have been inversely correlated with cardiovascular risk, while administration of EPCs in humans has demonstrated improved clinical outcomes. Despite these encouraging results, however, advancing EPCs as a therapeutic modality has been hampered by a fundamental roadblock: what constitutes an EPC? We review current definitions and sources of EPCs as well as the proposed mechanisms of EPC-mediated vascular repair. Additionally, we discuss the current state of EPCs as therapeutic agents, focusing on endogenous augmentation and transplantation.

IκB Kinase Inhibitor Attenuates Sepsis-Induced Cardiac Dysfunction in CKD

Patients with CKD requiring dialysis have a higher risk of sepsis and a 100-fold higher mortality rate than the general population with sepsis. The severity of cardiac dysfunction predicts mortality in patients with sepsis. Here, we investigated the effect of preexisting CKD on cardiac function in mice with sepsis and whether inhibition of IκB kinase (IKK) reduces the cardiac dysfunction in CKD sepsis. Male C57BL/6 mice underwent 5/6 nephrectomy, and 8 weeks later, they were subjected to LPS (2 mg/kg) or sepsis by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). Compared with sham operation, nephrectomy resulted in significant increases in urea and creatinine levels, a small (P<0.05) reduction in ejection fraction (echocardiography), and increases in the cardiac levels of phosphorylated IκBα, Akt, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2; nuclear translocation of the NF-κB subunit p65; and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. When subjected to LPS or CLP, compared with sham-operated controls, CKD mice exhibited exacerbation of cardiac dysfunction and lung inflammation, greater increases in levels of plasma cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10), and greater increases in the cardiac levels of phosphorylated IKKα/β and IκBα, nuclear translocation of p65, and iNOS expression. Treatment of CKD mice with an IKK inhibitor (IKK 16; 1 mg/kg) 1 hour after CLP or LPS administration attenuated these effects. Thus, preexisting CKD aggravates the cardiac dysfunction caused by sepsis or endotoxemia in mice; this effect may be caused by increased cardiac NF-κB activation and iNOS expression.

Pellino-1 promotes lung carcinogenesis via the stabilization of Slug and Snail through K63-mediated polyubiquitination

Pellino-1 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase acting as a critical mediator for a variety of immune receptor signaling pathways, including Toll-like receptors, interleukin-1 receptor and T-cell receptors. We recently showed that the Pellino-1-transgenic (Tg) mice developed multiple tumors with different subtypes in hematolymphoid and solid organs. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the oncogenic role of Pellino-1 in solid tumors remains unknown. Pellino-1-Tg mice developed adenocarcinoma in the lungs, and Pellino-1 expression was higher in human lung adenocarcinoma cell lines compared with non-neoplastic bronchial epithelial cell lines. Pellino-1 overexpression increased the cell proliferation, survival, colony formation, invasion and migration of lung adenocarcinoma cells, whereas Pellino-1 knock-down showed the opposite effect. Pellino-1 overexpression activated PI3K/Akt and ERK signaling pathways and elicited an epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype of lung adenocarcinoma cells. Pellino-1-mediated EMT was demonstrated through morphology, the upregulation of Vimentin, Slug and Snail expression and the downregulation of E-cadherin and β-catenin expression. Notably, Pellino-1 had a direct effect on the overexpression of Snail and Slug through Lys63-mediated polyubiquitination and the subsequent stabilization of these proteins. Pellino-1 expression level was significantly correlated with Snail and Slug expression in human lung adenocarcinoma tissues, and lung tumors from Pellino-1-Tg mice showed Snail and Slug overexpression. The Pellino-1-mediated increase in the migration of lung adenocarcinoma cells was mediated by Snail and Slug expression. Taken together, these results show that Pellino-1 contributes to lung tumorigenesis by inducing overexpression of Snail and Slug and promoting EMT. Pellino-1 might be a potential therapeutic target for lung cancer.

BACE1-Deficient Mice Exhibit Alterations in Immune System Pathways

BACE1 encodes for the beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 or β-secretase. Genetic deletion of Bace1 leads to behavioral alterations and affects midbrain dopaminergic signaling and memory processes. In order to further understand the role of BACE1 in brain function and behavior, we performed microarray transcriptome profiling and gene pathway analysis in the hippocampus of BACE1-deficient mice compared to wild type. We identified a total of 91 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), mostly enriched in pathways related to the immune and inflammation systems, particularly IL-9 and NF-κB activation pathways. Serum levels of IL-9 were elevated in BACE1-deficient mice. Our network analysis supports an intimate connection between immune response via NF-κB and BACE1 signaling through the NRG1/Akt1 pathway. Our findings warrant future mechanistic studies to determine if BACE1 signaling and the IL-9 pathway interact to alter behavior and brain function. This study opens new avenues in the investigation of hippocampus-related neuroimmunological and neuroinflammation-associated disorders.