1
|
Schamp CN, Dhowlaghar N, Hudson LK, Bryan DW, Zhong Q, Fozo EM, Gaballa A, Wiedmann M, Denes TG. Selection of mutant Listeria phages under food-relevant conditions can enhance application potential. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0100723. [PMID: 37800961 PMCID: PMC10617581 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01007-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect and kill bacteria. Currently, phage products are available for the control of the pathogen Listeria monocytogenes in food products in the United States. In this study, we explore whether experimental evolution can be used to generate phages with improved abilities to function under specific food-relevant conditions. Ultra-pasteurized oat and whole milk were chosen as test matrices as they represent different food groups, yet have similar physical traits and macronutrient composition. We showed that (i) wild-type phage LP-125 infection kinetics are different in the two matrices and (ii) LP-125 has a significantly higher burst size in oat milk. From this, we attempted to evolve LP-125 to have improved infection kinetics in whole milk. Ancestral LP-125 was passaged through 10 rounds of amplification in milk conditions. Plaque-purified DNA samples from milk-selected phages were isolated and sequenced, and mutations present in the isolated phages were identified. We found two nonsynonymous substitutions in LP125_108 and LP125_112 genes, which encode putative baseplate-associated glycerophosphoryl diester phosphodiesterase and baseplate protein, respectively. Protein structural modeling showed that the substituted amino acids in the mutant phages are predicted to localize to surface-exposed helices on the corresponding structures, which might affect the surface charge of proteins and their interaction with the bacterial cell. The phage containing the LP125_112 mutation adsorbed significantly faster than the ancestral phage in both oat and whole milk. Follow-up experiments suggest that fat content may be a key factor for the expression of the phenotype of this mutation. IMPORTANCE Bacteriophages are one of the tools available to control the foodborne pathogen, Listeria monocytogenes. Phage products must work under a broad range of food conditions to be an effective control for L. monocytogenes. Here, we show that the experimental evolution of phages can be used to generate new phages with phenotypes useful under specific conditions. We used this approach to select for a mutant phage that more efficiently binds to L. monocytogenes that is grown in whole milk and oat milk. We show that the fat content of these milks is necessary for the expression of this phenotype. Our findings show that experimental evolution can be used to select for improved phages with better performance under specific conditions. This approach has the potential to support the development of condition-specific phage-based biocontrols in the food industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claire N. Schamp
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Nitin Dhowlaghar
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Lauren K. Hudson
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Daniel W. Bryan
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Qixin Zhong
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Elizabeth M. Fozo
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ahmed Gaballa
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Martin Wiedmann
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Thomas G. Denes
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Alrafaie AM, Stafford GP. Enterococcal bacteriophage: A survey of the tail associated lysin landscape. Virus Res 2023; 327:199073. [PMID: 36787848 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2023.199073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
Bacteriophages are viruses that exclusively infect bacteria which require local degradation of cell barriers. This degradation is accomplished by various lysins located mainly within the phage tail structure. In this paper we surveyed and analysed the genomes of 506 isolated bacteriophage and prophage infecting or harboured within the genomes of the medically important Enterococcus faecalis and faecium. We highlight and characterise the major features of the genomes of phage in the morphological groups podovirus, siphovirus and myovirus, and explore their categorisation according to the new ICTV classifications, with a focus on putative extracellular lysins chiefly within tail modules. Our analysis reveals a range of potential cell-wall targeting enzyme domains that are part of tail, tape measure or other predicted base structures of these phages or prophages. These largely fall into protein domains targeting pentapeptide or glycosidic linkages within peptidoglycan but also potentially the enterococcal polysaccharide antigen (EPA) and wall teichoic acids of these species (i.e., Pectinesterases and Phosphodiesterases). Notably, there is a great variety of domain architectures that reveal the diversity of evolutionary solutions to attack the Enterococcus cell wall. Despite this variety, most phage and prophage possess a putative endopeptidase (70%), reflecting the ubiquity of this cell surface barrier. We also identified a predicted lytic transglycosylase domain belonging to the glycosyl hydrolase (GH) family 23 and present exclusively within tape measure proteins. Our data also reveal distinct features of the genomes of podo-, sipho- and myo-type viruses that most likely relate to their size and complexity. Overall, we lay a foundation for expression of recombinant TAL proteins and engineering of enterococcal and other phage that will be invaluable for researchers in this field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alhassan M Alrafaie
- Integrated BioSciences, School of Clinical Dentistry, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Graham P Stafford
- Integrated BioSciences, School of Clinical Dentistry, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Sprotte S, Fagbemigun O, Brinks E, Cho GS, Casey E, Oguntoyinbo FA, Neve H, Mahony J, van Sinderen D, Franz CMAP. Novel Siphoviridae phage PMBT4 belonging to the group b Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus phages. Virus Res 2022; 308:198635. [PMID: 34808252 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.198635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
A novel Lactobacillus delbrueckii bacteriophage PMBT4 was isolated from the Nigerian fermented milk product nono. The phage possesses a long and thin, non-contractile tail and an isometric head, indicating that it belongs to the Siphoviridae family. A neck passage structure (`collar`), previously hypothesized to be encoded by two genes located in the Lactobacillus delbrueckii phage LL-K insertion sequence (KIS) element, as well as in two additional Lb. delbrueckii phages Ld17 and Ld25A, could also be observed on an estimated 1-5% of phage particles by transmission electron microscopy. However, neither mapping of high throughput sequencing data to KIS element genes from Lb. delbrueckii phages LL-K, Ld17 and Ld25A nor PCR amplification of the KIS element genes could corroborate the presence of these genes in the PMBT4 genome. The PMBT4 genome consists of 31,399 bp with a mol% GC content of 41.6 and exhibits high (95-96%) sequence homologies to Lb. delbrueckii phages c5, Ld3, Ld25A and Ld17, which assigned PMBT4 as a new member of this genus, i.e. the Cequinquevirus genus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Sprotte
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Hermann-Weigmann-Str. 1, Kiel 24103, Germany
| | - Olakunle Fagbemigun
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria
| | - Erik Brinks
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Hermann-Weigmann-Str. 1, Kiel 24103, Germany
| | - Gyu-Sung Cho
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Hermann-Weigmann-Str. 1, Kiel 24103, Germany
| | - Eoghan Casey
- School of Microbiology and APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Western Road, Cork T12 YT20, Ireland
| | - Folarin A Oguntoyinbo
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria; A.R. Smith Department of Chemistry and Fermentation Sciences, Appalachian State University, 730 River Street, Boone, NC 28608, USA
| | - Horst Neve
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Hermann-Weigmann-Str. 1, Kiel 24103, Germany
| | - Jennifer Mahony
- School of Microbiology and APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Western Road, Cork T12 YT20, Ireland
| | - Douwe van Sinderen
- School of Microbiology and APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Western Road, Cork T12 YT20, Ireland
| | - Charles M A P Franz
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Hermann-Weigmann-Str. 1, Kiel 24103, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Martínez B, Rodríguez A, Kulakauskas S, Chapot-Chartier MP. Cell wall homeostasis in lactic acid bacteria: threats and defences. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2021; 44:538-564. [PMID: 32495833 PMCID: PMC7476776 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuaa021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) encompasses industrially relevant bacteria involved in food fermentations as well as health-promoting members of our autochthonous microbiota. In the last years, we have witnessed major progresses in the knowledge of the biology of their cell wall, the outermost macrostructure of a Gram-positive cell, which is crucial for survival. Sophisticated biochemical analyses combined with mutation strategies have been applied to unravel biosynthetic routes that sustain the inter- and intra-species cell wall diversity within LAB. Interplay with global cell metabolism has been deciphered that improved our fundamental understanding of the plasticity of the cell wall during growth. The cell wall is also decisive for the antimicrobial activity of many bacteriocins, for bacteriophage infection and for the interactions with the external environment. Therefore, genetic circuits involved in monitoring cell wall damage have been described in LAB, together with a plethora of defence mechanisms that help them to cope with external threats and adapt to harsh conditions. Since the cell wall plays a pivotal role in several technological and health-promoting traits of LAB, we anticipate that this knowledge will pave the way for the future development and extended applications of LAB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Martínez
- DairySafe research group. Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Dairy Products. Instituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias, IPLA-CSIC. Paseo Río Linares s/n. 33300 Villaviciosa, Spain
| | - Ana Rodríguez
- DairySafe research group. Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Dairy Products. Instituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias, IPLA-CSIC. Paseo Río Linares s/n. 33300 Villaviciosa, Spain
| | - Saulius Kulakauskas
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Oduor JMO, Kadija E, Nyachieo A, Mureithi MW, Skurnik M. Bioprospecting Staphylococcus Phages with Therapeutic and Bio-Control Potential. Viruses 2020; 12:E133. [PMID: 31979276 PMCID: PMC7077315 DOI: 10.3390/v12020133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a serious threat to the public health. This is also true for Staphylococcus aureus and other staphylococci. Staphylococcus phages Stab20, Stab21, Stab22, and Stab23, were isolated in Albania. Based on genomic and phylogenetic analysis, they were classified to genus Kayvirus of the subfamily Twortvirinae. In this work, we describe the in-depth characterization of the phages that electron microscopy confirmed to be myoviruses. These phages showed tolerance to pH range of 5.4 to 9.4, to maximum UV radiation energy of 25 µJ/cm2, to temperatures up to 45 °C, and to ethanol concentrations up to 25%, and complete resistance to chloroform. The adsorption rate constants of the phages ranged between 1.0 × 10-9 mL/min and 4.7 × 10-9 mL/min, and the burst size was from 42 to 130 plaque-forming units. The phages Stab20, 21, 22, and 23, originally isolated using Staphylococcusxylosus as a host, demonstrated varied host ranges among different Staphylococcus strains suggesting that they could be included in cocktail formulations for therapeutic or bio-control purpose. Phage particle proteomes, consisting on average of ca 60-70 gene products, revealed, in addition to straight-forward structural proteins, also the presence of enzymes such DNA polymerase, helicases, recombinases, exonucleases, and RNA ligase polymer. They are likely to be injected into the bacteria along with the genomic DNA to take over the host metabolism as soon as possible after infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M. Ochieng’ Oduor
- KAVI—Institute of Clinical Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box, Nairobi 19676–00202, Kenya;
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Medicum, Human Microbiome Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00014 UH Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ermir Kadija
- Department of Biology-Chemistry, University of Shkodra “Luigj Gurakuqi”, 4001 Shkodra, Albania;
| | - Atunga Nyachieo
- Department of Reproductive Health & Biology, Phage Biology Section, Institute of Primate Research, P.O. Box, Karen-Nairobi 24481-00502, Kenya;
| | - Marianne W. Mureithi
- KAVI—Institute of Clinical Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box, Nairobi 19676–00202, Kenya;
| | - Mikael Skurnik
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Medicum, Human Microbiome Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00014 UH Helsinki, Finland
- Division of Clinical Microbiology, Helsinki University Hospital, HUSLAB, 00029 HUS Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Expanding the Diversity of Myoviridae Phages Infecting Lactobacillus plantarum-A Novel Lineage of Lactobacillus Phages Comprising Five New Members. Viruses 2019; 11:v11070611. [PMID: 31277436 PMCID: PMC6669764 DOI: 10.3390/v11070611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Lactobacillus plantarum is a bacterium with probiotic properties and promising applications in the food industry and agriculture. So far, bacteriophages of this bacterium have been moderately addressed. We examined the diversity of five new L. plantarum phages via whole genome shotgun sequencing and in silico protein predictions. Moreover, we looked into their phylogeny and their potential genomic similarities to other complete phage genome records through extensive nucleotide and protein comparisons. These analyses revealed a high degree of similarity among the five phages, which extended to the vast majority of predicted virion-associated proteins. Based on these, we selected one of the phages as a representative and performed transmission electron microscopy and structural protein sequencing tests. Overall, the results suggested that the five phages belong to the family Myoviridae, they have a long genome of 137,973-141,344 bp, a G/C content of 36.3-36.6% that is quite distinct from their host's, and surprisingly, 7 to 15 tRNAs. Only an average 41/174 of their predicted genes were assigned a function. The comparative analyses unraveled considerable genetic diversity for the five L. plantarum phages in this study. Hence, the new genus "Semelevirus" was proposed, comprising exclusively of the five phages. This novel lineage of Lactobacillus phages provides further insight into the genetic heterogeneity of phages infecting Lactobacillus sp. The five new Lactobacillus phages have potential value for the development of more robust starters through, for example, the selection of mutants insensitive to phage infections. The five phages could also form part of phage cocktails, which producers would apply in different stages of L. plantarum fermentations in order to create a range of organoleptic outputs.
Collapse
|
7
|
Sadovskaya I, Guérardel Y. Simple Protocol to Purify Cell Wall Polysaccharide from Gram-Positive Bacteria and Assess Its Structural Integrity. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1954:37-45. [PMID: 30864122 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9154-9_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Cell wall polysaccharides (CWPS), which are usually covalently bound to the peptidoglycan and are closely associated with the cell wall, are considered as ubiquitous components of the cell envelope of gram-positive bacteria and play an important role as mediators of bacterial interactions with the environment. Here, we describe a simple method for purifying CWPS by extraction of bacterial cells with consecutive acid treatments. Purified CWPS are obtained by gel-filtration chromatography following treatment with HF. We also provide the methodology to easily assess the integrity of CWPS using high-resolution magic-angle spinning (HR-MAS) NMR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irina Sadovskaya
- Équipe BPA, Univ. Littoral Côte d'Opale, convention ANSES, EA 7394, ICV Charles Violette, Univ. Lille, Univ. Artois, INRA, ISA F-62321, Boulogne-sur-mer, France
| | - Yann Guérardel
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576 - UGSF - Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille, France.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Jorge AM, Schneider J, Unsleber S, Xia G, Mayer C, Peschel A. Staphylococcus aureus counters phosphate limitation by scavenging wall teichoic acids from other staphylococci via the teichoicase GlpQ. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:14916-14924. [PMID: 30068554 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.004584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is part of the human nasal and skin microbiomes along with other bacterial commensals and opportunistic pathogens. Nutrients are scarce in these habitats, demanding effective nutrient acquisition and competition strategies. How S. aureus copes with phosphate limitation is still unknown. Wall teichoic acid (WTA), a polyol-phosphate polymer, could serve as a phosphate source, but whether S. aureus can utilize it during phosphate starvation remains unknown. S. aureus secretes a glycerophosphodiesterase, GlpQ, that cleaves a broad variety of glycerol-3-phosphate (GroP) headgroups of deacylated phospholipids, providing this bacterium with GroP as a carbon and phosphate source. Here we demonstrate that GlpQ can also use glycerophosphoglycerol derived from GroP WTA from coagulase-negative Staphylococcus lugdunensis, Staphylococcus capitis, and Staphylococcus epidermidis, which share the nasal and skin habitats with S. aureus Therefore, S. aureus GlpQ is the first reported WTA-hydrolyzing enzyme, or teichoicase, from Staphylococcus Activity assays revealed that unmodified WTA is the preferred GlpQ substrate, and the results from MS analysis suggested that GlpQ uses an exolytic cleavage mechanism. Importantly, GlpQ did not hydrolyze the ribitol-5-phosphate WTA polymers of S. aureus, underscoring its role in interspecies competition rather than in S. aureus cell wall homeostasis or WTA recycling. glpQ expression was strongly up-regulated under phosphate limitation, and GlpQ allowed S. aureus to grow in the presence of GroP WTA as the sole phosphate source. Our study reveals a novel and unprecedented strategy of S. aureus for acquiring phosphate from bacterial competitors under the phosphate-limiting conditions in the nasal or skin environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Maria Jorge
- From the Infection Biology Department, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany, .,the German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany, and
| | - Jonathan Schneider
- From the Infection Biology Department, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.,the German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany, and
| | - Sandra Unsleber
- the Microbiology/Biotechnology Department, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Guoqing Xia
- From the Infection Biology Department, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.,the German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany, and
| | - Christoph Mayer
- the Microbiology/Biotechnology Department, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Peschel
- From the Infection Biology Department, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.,the German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany, and
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Enzymes and Mechanisms Employed by Tailed Bacteriophages to Breach the Bacterial Cell Barriers. Viruses 2018; 10:v10080396. [PMID: 30060520 PMCID: PMC6116005 DOI: 10.3390/v10080396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Monoderm bacteria possess a cell envelope made of a cytoplasmic membrane and a cell wall, whereas diderm bacteria have and extra lipid layer, the outer membrane, covering the cell wall. Both cell types can also produce extracellular protective coats composed of polymeric substances like, for example, polysaccharidic capsules. Many of these structures form a tight physical barrier impenetrable by phage virus particles. Tailed phages evolved strategies/functions to overcome the different layers of the bacterial cell envelope, first to deliver the genetic material to the host cell cytoplasm for virus multiplication, and then to release the virion offspring at the end of the reproductive cycle. There is however a major difference between these two crucial steps of the phage infection cycle: virus entry cannot compromise cell viability, whereas effective virion progeny release requires host cell lysis. Here we present an overview of the viral structures, key protein players and mechanisms underlying phage DNA entry to bacteria, and then escape of the newly-formed virus particles from infected hosts. Understanding the biological context and mode of action of the phage-derived enzymes that compromise the bacterial cell envelope may provide valuable information for their application as antimicrobials.
Collapse
|