1
|
Anderson NE, Alexander HS, Messing A. Alexander disease: The story behind an eponym. JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE NEUROSCIENCES 2023; 32:399-422. [PMID: 37000960 DOI: 10.1080/0964704x.2023.2190354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
In 1949, William Stewart Alexander (1919-2013), a young pathologist from New Zealand working in London, reported the neuropathological findings in a 15-month-old boy who had developed normally until the age of seven months, but thereafter had progressive enlargement of his head and severe developmental delay. The most striking neuropathological abnormality was the presence of numerous Rosenthal fibers in the brain. The distribution of these fibers suggested to Alexander that the primary pathological change involved astrocytes. In the next 15 years, five similar patients were reported, and in 1964 Friede recognized these cases reflected a single disease process and coined the eponym "Alexander's disease" to describe the disorder. In the 1960s, electron microscopy confirmed that Rosenthal fibers were localized to astrocytes. In 2001, it was shown that Alexander disease is caused by mutations in the gene encoding glial fibrillary acidic protein, the major intermediate filament protein in astrocytes. Although the clinical, imaging, and pathological manifestations of Alexander disease are now well known, few people are familiar with Alexander's career. Although he did not make a further contribution to the literature on Alexander disease, his observations and accurate interpretation of the neuropathology have justified the continued use of the eponym "Alexander disease."
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil E Anderson
- Neurology Department, Auckland City Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Hamish S Alexander
- Kenneth G. Jamieson Neurosurgery Department, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Albee Messing
- Waisman Center and Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wilson KM, He JJ. HIV Nef Expression Down-modulated GFAP Expression and Altered Glutamate Uptake and Release and Proliferation in Astrocytes. Aging Dis 2023; 14:152-169. [PMID: 36818564 PMCID: PMC9937695 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2022.0712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV infection of astrocytes leads to restricted gene expression and replication but abundant expression of HIV early genes Tat, Nef and Rev. A great deal of neuroHIV research has so far been focused on Tat protein, its effects on astrocytes, and its roles in neuroHIV. In the current study, we aimed to determine effects of Nef expression on astrocytes and their function. Using transfection or infection of VSVG-pseudotyped HIV viruses, we showed that Nef expression down-modulated glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression. We then showed that Nef expression also led to decreased GFAP mRNA expression. The transcriptional regulation was further confirmed using a GFAP promoter-driven reporter gene assay. We performed transcription factor profiling array to compare the expression of transcription factors between Nef-intact and Nef-deficient HIV-infected cells and identified eight transcription factors with expression changes of 1.5-fold or higher: three up-regulated by Nef (Stat1, Stat5, and TFIID), and five down-regulated by Nef (AR, GAS/ISRE, HIF, Sp1, and p53). We then demonstrated that removal of the Sp1 binding sites from the GFAP promoter resulted in a much lower level of the promoter activity and reversal of Nef effects on the GFAP promoter, confirming important roles of Sp1 in the GFAP promoter activity and for Nef-induced GFAP expression. Lastly, we showed that Nef expression led to increased glutamate uptake and decreased glutamate release by astrocytes and increased astrocyte proliferation. Taken together, these results indicate that Nef leads to down-modulation of GFAP expression and alteration of glutamate metabolism in astrocytes, and astrocyte proliferation and could be an important contributor to neuroHIV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly M Wilson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Cancer Cell Biology, Immunology and Infection, School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, Rosalind Franklin University, Chicago Medical School, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Johnny J He
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Cancer Cell Biology, Immunology and Infection, School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, Rosalind Franklin University, Chicago Medical School, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zuchegna C, Porcellini A, Messina S. Redox-sensitive small GTPase H-Ras in murine astrocytes, an in vitro study. Redox Rep 2022; 27:150-157. [PMID: 35822835 PMCID: PMC9291712 DOI: 10.1080/13510002.2022.2094109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although the protooncogenes small GTPases Ras are redox-sensitive proteins, how they are regulated by redox signaling in the central nervous system (CNS) is still poorly understood. Alteration in redox-sensitive targets by redox signaling may have myriad effects on Ras stability, activity and localization. Redox-mediated changes in astrocytic RAS may contribute to the control of redox homeostasis in the CNS that is connected to the pathogenesis of many diseases. Results and Methods Here, we investigated the transient physiological induction, at both transcriptional and translational levels, of small GTPases Ras in response to redox stimulation. Cultured astrocytes were treated with hydrogen peroxide as in bolus addition and relative mRNA levels of murine hras and kras genes were detected by qRT-PCR. We found that de novo transcription of hras mRNA in reactive astrocytes is redox-sensitive and mimics the prototypical redox-sensitive gene iNOS. Protein abundance in combination with protein turnover measurements by cycloheximide-chase experiments revealed distinct translation efficiency, GTP-bound enrichment, and protein turnover rates between the two isoforms H-Ras and K-Ras. Conclusion Reports from recent years support a significant role of H-Ras in driving redox processes. Beyond its canonical functions, Ras may impact on the core astrocytic cellular machinery that operates during redox stimulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Candida Zuchegna
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant'Angelo, Università degli Studi di Napoli "Federico II", Napoli, Italia
| | - Antonio Porcellini
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant'Angelo, Università degli Studi di Napoli "Federico II", Napoli, Italia
| | - Samantha Messina
- Dipartimento di Scienze, Università degli Studi Roma Tre, Roma, Italia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hier DB, Azizi S, Thimgan MS, Wunsch DC. Tau kinetics in Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:1055170. [PMID: 36437992 PMCID: PMC9682289 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.1055170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The cytoskeletal protein tau is implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease which is characterized by intra-neuronal neurofibrillary tangles containing abnormally phosphorylated insoluble tau. Levels of soluble tau are elevated in the brain, the CSF, and the plasma of patients with Alzheimer's disease. To better understand the causes of these elevated levels of tau, we propose a three-compartment kinetic model (brain, CSF, and plasma). The model assumes that the synthesis of tau follows zero-order kinetics (uncorrelated with compartmental tau levels) and that the release, absorption, and clearance of tau is governed by first-order kinetics (linearly related to compartmental tau levels). Tau that is synthesized in the brain compartment can be released into the interstitial fluid, catabolized, or retained in neurofibrillary tangles. Tau released into the interstitial fluid can mix with the CSF and eventually drain to the plasma compartment. However, losses of tau in the drainage pathways may be significant. The kinetic model estimates half-life of tau in each compartment (552 h in the brain, 9.9 h in the CSF, and 10 h in the plasma). The kinetic model predicts that an increase in the neuronal tau synthesis rate or a decrease in tau catabolism rate best accounts for observed increases in tau levels in the brain, CSF, and plasma found in Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, the model predicts that increases in brain half-life of tau in Alzheimer's disease should be attributed to decreased tau catabolism and not to increased tau synthesis. Most clearance of tau in the neuron occurs through catabolism rather than release to the CSF compartment. Additional experimental data would make ascertainment of the model parameters more precise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B. Hier
- Applied Computational Intelligence Laboratory, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Missouri University of Science & Technology, Rolla, MO, United States
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Sima Azizi
- Applied Computational Intelligence Laboratory, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Missouri University of Science & Technology, Rolla, MO, United States
| | - Matthew S. Thimgan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Missouri University of Science & Technology, Rolla, MO, United States
| | - Donald C. Wunsch
- Applied Computational Intelligence Laboratory, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Missouri University of Science & Technology, Rolla, MO, United States
- ECCS Division, National Science Foundation, Alexandria, VA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hagemann TL. Alexander disease: models, mechanisms, and medicine. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2022; 72:140-147. [PMID: 34826654 PMCID: PMC8901527 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Alexander disease is a primary disorder of astrocytes caused by gain-of-function mutations in the gene for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), which lead to protein aggregation and a reactive astrocyte response, with devastating effects on the central nervous system. Over the past two decades since the discovery of GFAP as the culprit, several cellular and animal models have been generated, and much has been learned about underlying mechanisms contributing to the disease. Despite these efforts, many aspects of Alexander disease have remained enigmatic, particularly the initiating events in GFAP accumulation and astrocyte pathology, the relation between astrocyte dysfunction and myelin deficits, and the variability in age of onset and disease severity. More recent work in both old and new models has begun to address these complex questions and identify new therapeutics that finally offer the promise of effective treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tracy L. Hagemann
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin – Madison, 1500 Highland Ave, Madison, WI 53705
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hagemann TL, Powers B, Lin NH, Mohamed AF, Dague KL, Hannah SC, Bachmann G, Mazur C, Rigo F, Olsen AL, Feany MB, Perng MD, Berman RF, Messing A. Antisense therapy in a rat model of Alexander disease reverses GFAP pathology, white matter deficits, and motor impairment. Sci Transl Med 2021; 13:eabg4711. [PMID: 34788075 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abg4711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tracy L Hagemann
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | | | - Ni-Hsuan Lin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Life Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Ahmed F Mohamed
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Katerina L Dague
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Seth C Hannah
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | | | - Curt Mazur
- Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Carlsbad, CA 92010, USA
| | - Frank Rigo
- Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Carlsbad, CA 92010, USA
| | - Abby L Olsen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Mel B Feany
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Ming-Der Perng
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Life Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Robert F Berman
- Department of Neurological Surgery and M.I.N.D Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Albee Messing
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA.,Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
Fifty years have passed since the discovery of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) by Lawrence Eng and colleagues. Now recognized as a member of the intermediate filament family of proteins, it has become a subject for study in fields as diverse as structural biology, cell biology, gene expression, basic neuroscience, clinical genetics and gene therapy. This review covers each of these areas, presenting an overview of current understanding and controversies regarding GFAP with the goal of stimulating continued study of this fascinating protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Albee Messing
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison.,Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison
| | - Michael Brenner
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama-Birmingham
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Chatterton Z, Mendelev N, Chen S, Carr W, Kamimori GH, Ge Y, Dwork AJ, Haghighi F. Bisulfite Amplicon Sequencing Can Detect Glia and Neuron Cell-Free DNA in Blood Plasma. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:672614. [PMID: 34276305 PMCID: PMC8283182 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.672614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sampling the live brain is difficult and dangerous, and withdrawing cerebrospinal fluid is uncomfortable and frightening to the subject, so new sources of real-time analysis are constantly sought. Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) derived from glia and neurons offers the potential for wide-ranging neurological disease diagnosis and monitoring. However, new laboratory and bioinformatic strategies are needed. DNA methylation patterns on individual cfDNA fragments can be used to ascribe their cell-of-origin. Here we describe bisulfite sequencing assays and bioinformatic processing methods to identify cfDNA derived from glia and neurons. In proof-of-concept experiments, we describe the presence of both glia- and neuron-cfDNA in the blood plasma of human subjects following mild trauma. This detection of glia- and neuron-cfDNA represents a significant step forward in the translation of liquid biopsies for neurological diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zac Chatterton
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Medical Epigenetics, James J. Peters VA Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
- Brain and Mind Centre, School of Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Natalia Mendelev
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Medical Epigenetics, James J. Peters VA Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Sean Chen
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Medical Epigenetics, James J. Peters VA Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Walter Carr
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, United States
| | - Gary H. Kamimori
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Yongchao Ge
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Andrew J. Dwork
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology Division, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Fatemeh Haghighi
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Medical Epigenetics, James J. Peters VA Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Yoshida T. [Clinical characteristics and diagnostic criteria on Alexander disease]. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 2020; 60:581-588. [PMID: 32779598 DOI: 10.5692/clinicalneurol.cn-001442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Alexander disease (ALXDRD) is a primary astrocyte disease caused by glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) gene mutation. ALXDRD had been clinically regarded as a cerebral white matter disease that affects only children for about 50 years since the initial report in 1949; however, in the early part of the 21st century, case reports of adult-onset ALXDRD with medulla and spinal cord lesions increased. Basic research on therapies to reduce abnormal GFAP accumulation, such as drug-repositioning and antisense oligonucleotide suppression, has recently been published. The accumulation of clinical data to advance understanding of natural history is essential for clinical trials expected in the future. In this review, I classified ALXDRD into two subtypes: early-onset and late-onset, and detail the clinical symptoms, imaging findings, and genetic characteristics as well as the epidemiology and historical changes in the clinical classification described in the literature. The diagnostic criteria based on Japanese ALXDRD patients that are useful in daily clinical practice are also mentioned.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomokatsu Yoshida
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Background Alexander disease is caused by dominantly acting mutations in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), the major intermediate filament of astrocytes in the central nervous system. Main body In addition to the sequence variants that represent the origin of disease, GFAP accumulation also takes place, together leading to a gain-of-function that has sometimes been referred to as “GFAP toxicity.” Whether the nature of GFAP toxicity in patients, who have mixtures of both mutant and normal protein, is the same as that produced by simple GFAP excess, is not yet clear. Conclusion The implications of these questions for the design of effective treatments are discussed.
Collapse
|
11
|
Li D, Liu X, Liu T, Liu H, Tong L, Jia S, Wang YF. Neurochemical regulation of the expression and function of glial fibrillary acidic protein in astrocytes. Glia 2019; 68:878-897. [PMID: 31626364 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a type III intermediate filament, is a marker of mature astrocytes. The expression of GFAP gene is regulated by many transcription factors (TFs), mainly Janus kinase-2/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 cascade and nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell signaling. GFAP expression is also modulated by protein kinase and other signaling molecules that are elicited by neuronal activity and hormones. Abnormal expression of GFAP proteins occurs in neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, brain edema-eliciting diseases, traumatic brain injury, psychiatric disorders and others. GFAP, mainly in α-isoform, is the major component of cytoskeleton and the scaffold of astrocytes, which is essential for the maintenance of astrocytic structure and shape. GFAP also has highly morphological plasticity because of its quick changes in assembling and polymerizing states in response to environmental challenges. This plasticity and its corresponding cellular morphological changes endow astrocytes the functions of physical barrier between adjacent neurons and stabilizer of extracellular environment. Moreover, GFAP colocalizes and even molecularly associates with many functional molecules. This feature allows GFAP to function as a platform for direct interactions between different molecules. Last, GFAP involves transportation and localization of other functional proteins and thus serves as a protein transport guide in astrocytes. This guiding role of GFAP involves an elastic retraction and extension cytoskeletal network that couples with GFAP reassembling, transporting, and membrane protein recycling machinery. This paper reviews our current understanding of the expression and functions of GFAP as well as their regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dongyang Li
- Department of Physiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaoyu Liu
- Department of Physiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Tianming Liu
- Department of Physiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Haitao Liu
- Department of Physiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Li Tong
- Department of Physiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Shuwei Jia
- Department of Physiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Yu-Feng Wang
- Department of Physiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Heaven MR, Wilson L, Barnes S, Brenner M. Relative stabilities of wild-type and mutant glial fibrillary acidic protein in patients with Alexander disease. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:15604-15612. [PMID: 31484723 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.009777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 08/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Alexander disease (AxD) is an often fatal astrogliopathy caused by dominant gain-of-function missense mutations in the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) gene. The mechanism by which the mutations produce the AxD phenotype is not known. However, the observation that features of AxD are displayed by mice that express elevated levels of GFAP from a human WT GFAP transgene has contributed to the notion that the mutations produce AxD by increasing accumulation of total GFAP above some toxic threshold rather than the mutant GFAP being inherently toxic. A possible mechanism for accumulation of GFAP in AxD patients is that the mutated GFAP variants are more stable than the WT, an attribution abetted by observations that GFAP complexes containing GFAP variants are more resistant to solvent extraction. Here we tested this hypothesis by determining the relative levels of WT and mutant GFAP in three individuals with AxD, each of whom carried a common but different GFAP mutation (R79C, R239H, or R416W). Mass spectrometry analysis identified a peptide specific to the mutant or WT GFAP in each patient, and we quantified this peptide by comparing its signal to that of an added [15N]GFAP standard. In all three individuals, the level of mutant GFAP was less than that of the WT. This finding suggests that AxD onset is due to an intrinsic toxicity of the mutant GFAP instead of it acting indirectly by being more stable than WT GFAP and thereby increasing the total GFAP level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Heaven
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Landon Wilson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Targeted Metabolomics and Proteomics Laboratory, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Stephen Barnes
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Targeted Metabolomics and Proteomics Laboratory, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Michael Brenner
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Novel Insights on the Toxicity of Phycotoxins on the Gut through the Targeting of Enteric Glial Cells. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17070429. [PMID: 31340532 PMCID: PMC6669610 DOI: 10.3390/md17070429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that phycotoxins can impact intestinal epithelial cells and can cross the intestinal barrier to some extent. Therefore, phycotoxins can reach cells underlying the epithelium, such as enteric glial cells (EGCs), which are involved in gut homeostasis, motility, and barrier integrity. This study compared the toxicological effects of pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), yessotoxin (YTX), okadaic acid (OA), azaspiracid-1 (AZA1), 13-desmethyl-spirolide C (SPX), and palytoxin (PlTX) on the rat EGC cell line CRL2690. Cell viability, morphology, oxidative stress, inflammation, cell cycle, and specific glial markers were evaluated using RT-qPCR and high content analysis (HCA) approaches. PTX2, YTX, OA, AZA1, and PlTX induced neurite alterations, oxidative stress, cell cycle disturbance, and increase of specific EGC markers. An inflammatory response for YTX, OA, and AZA1 was suggested by the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Caspase-3-dependent apoptosis and induction of DNA double strand breaks (γH2AX) were also observed with PTX2, YTX, OA, and AZA1. These findings suggest that PTX2, YTX, OA, AZA1, and PlTX may affect intestinal barrier integrity through alterations of the human enteric glial system. Our results provide novel insight into the toxicological effects of phycotoxins on the gut.
Collapse
|
14
|
Sosunov A, Olabarria M, Goldman JE. Alexander disease: an astrocytopathy that produces a leukodystrophy. Brain Pathol 2019; 28:388-398. [PMID: 29740945 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Alexander Disease (AxD) is a degenerative disorder caused by mutations in the GFAP gene, which encodes the major intermediate filament of astrocytes. As other cells in the CNS do not express GFAP, AxD is a primary astrocyte disease. Astrocytes acquire a large number of pathological features, including changes in morphology, the loss or diminution of a number of critical astrocyte functions and the activation of cell stress and inflammatory pathways. AxD is also characterized by white matter degeneration, a pathology that has led it to be included in the "leukodystrophies." Furthermore, variable degrees of neuronal loss take place. Thus, the astrocyte pathology triggers alterations in other cell types. Here, we will review the neuropathology of AxD and discuss how a disease of astrocytes can lead to severe pathologies in non-astrocytic cells. Our knowledge of the pathophysiology of AxD will also lead to a better understanding of how astrocytes interact with other CNS cells and how astrocytes in the gliosis that accompanies many neurological disorders can damage the function and survival of other cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Markel Olabarria
- Departments of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - James E Goldman
- Departments of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Xu X, Bass B, McKillop WM, Mailloux J, Liu T, Geremia NM, Hryciw T, Brown A. Sox9 knockout mice have improved recovery following stroke. Exp Neurol 2018; 303:59-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
16
|
Zorec R, Parpura V, Verkhratsky A. Astroglial vesicular network: evolutionary trends, physiology and pathophysiology. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2018; 222. [PMID: 28665546 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2017] [Revised: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular organelles, including secretory vesicles, emerged when eukaryotic cells evolved some 3 billion years ago. The primordial organelles that evolved in Archaea were similar to endolysosomes, which developed, arguably, for specific metabolic tasks, including uptake, metabolic processing, storage and disposal of molecules. In comparison with prokaryotes, cell volume of eukaryotes increased by several orders of magnitude and vesicle traffic emerged to allow for communication between distant intracellular locations. Lysosomes, first described in 1955, a prominent intermediate of endo- and exocytotic pathways, operate virtually in all eukaryotic cells including astroglia, the most heterogeneous type of homeostatic glia in the central nervous system. Astrocytes support neuronal network activity in particular through elaborated secretion, based on a complex intracellular vesicle network dynamics. Deranged homeostasis underlies disease and astroglial vesicle traffic contributes to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative (Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease), neurodevelopmental diseases (intellectual deficiency, Rett's disease) and neuroinfectious (Zika virus) disorders. This review addresses astroglial cell-autonomous vesicular traffic network, as well as its into primary and secondary vesicular network defects in diseases, and considers this network as a target for developing new therapies for neurological conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R. Zorec
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology and Molecular Cell Physiology; Institute of Pathophysiology; University of Ljubljana; Ljubljana Slovenia
- Celica; BIOMEDICAL; Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - V. Parpura
- Department of Neurobiology; Civitan International Research Center and Center for Glial Biology in Medicine; Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute; Atomic Force Microscopy and Nanotechnology Laboratories; University of Alabama; Birmingham AL USA
| | - A. Verkhratsky
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology and Molecular Cell Physiology; Institute of Pathophysiology; University of Ljubljana; Ljubljana Slovenia
- Celica; BIOMEDICAL; Ljubljana Slovenia
- Faculty of Biology; Medicine and Health; The University of Manchester; Manchester UK
- Achucarro Center for Neuroscience; IKERBASQUE; Basque Foundation for Science; Bilbao Spain
- Department of Neurosciences; University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU and CIBERNED; Leioa Spain
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Hagemann TL, Powers B, Mazur C, Kim A, Wheeler S, Hung G, Swayze E, Messing A. Antisense suppression of glial fibrillary acidic protein as a treatment for Alexander disease. Ann Neurol 2018; 83:27-39. [PMID: 29226998 DOI: 10.1002/ana.25118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alexander disease is a fatal leukodystrophy caused by autosomal dominant gain-of-function mutations in the gene for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), an intermediate filament protein primarily expressed in astrocytes of the central nervous system. A key feature of pathogenesis is overexpression and accumulation of GFAP, with formation of characteristic cytoplasmic aggregates known as Rosenthal fibers. Here we investigate whether suppressing GFAP with antisense oligonucleotides could provide a therapeutic strategy for treating Alexander disease. METHODS In this study, we use GFAP mutant mouse models of Alexander disease to test the efficacy of antisense suppression and evaluate the effects on molecular and cellular phenotypes and non-cell-autonomous toxicity. Antisense oligonucleotides were designed to target the murine Gfap transcript, and screened using primary mouse cortical cultures. Lead oligonucleotides were then tested for their ability to reduce GFAP transcripts and protein, first in wild-type mice with normal levels of GFAP, and then in adult mutant mice with established pathology and elevated levels of GFAP. RESULTS Nearly complete and long-lasting elimination of GFAP occurred in brain and spinal cord following single bolus intracerebroventricular injections, with a striking reversal of Rosenthal fibers and downstream markers of microglial and other stress-related responses. GFAP protein was also cleared from cerebrospinal fluid, demonstrating its potential utility as a biomarker in future clinical applications. Finally, treatment led to improved body condition and rescue of hippocampal neurogenesis. INTERPRETATION These results demonstrate the efficacy of antisense suppression for an astrocyte target, and provide a compelling therapeutic approach for Alexander disease. Ann Neurol 2018;83:27-39.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Steven Wheeler
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | | | | | - Albee Messing
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI.,Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Lin NH, Messing A, Perng MD. Characterization of a panel of monoclonal antibodies recognizing specific epitopes on GFAP. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180694. [PMID: 28700643 PMCID: PMC5503259 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Alexander disease (AxD) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by heterozygous mutations in the GFAP gene, which encodes the major intermediate filament protein of astrocytes. This disease is characterized by the accumulation of cytoplasmic protein aggregates, known as Rosenthal fibers. Antibodies specific to GFAP could provide invaluable tools to facilitate studies of the normal biology of GFAP and to elucidate the pathologic role of this IF protein in disease. While a large number of antibodies to GFAP are available, few if any of them have defined epitopes. Here we described the characterization of a panel of commonly used anti-GFAP antibodies, which recognized epitopes at regions extending across the rod domain of GFAP. We show that all of the antibodies are useful for immunoblotting and immunostaining, and identify a subset that preferentially recognized human GFAP. Using these antibodies, we demonstrate the presence of biochemically modified forms of GFAP in brains of human AxD patients and mouse AxD models. These data suggest that this panel of anti-GFAP antibodies will be useful for studies of animal and cell-based models of AxD and related diseases in which cytoskeletal defects associated with GFAP modifications occur.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ni-Hsuan Lin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Life Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Albee Messing
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Ming-Der Perng
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Life Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|