DnaK-Sigma 32 Interaction Is Temperature-dependent

Temperature-sensing riboceptors

Understanding how cells sense temperature is a fundamental question in biology and is pivotal for the evolution of life. In numerous organisms, temperature is not only sensed but also generated due to cellular processes. Consequently, the mechanisms governing temperature sensation in various organisms have been experimentally elucidated. Extending upon others' proposals and demonstration of protein- and nucleic acid-based thermosensors, and utilizing a colonial India 'punkah-wallahs' analogy, I present my rationale for the necessity of temperature sensing in every organelle in a cell. Finally, I propose temperature-sensing riboceptors (ribonucleic acid receptors) to integrate all the RNA molecules (mRNA, non-coding RNA, and so forth) capable of sensing temperature and triggering a signaling event, which I call as thermocrine signaling. This approach could enable the identification of riboceptors in every cell of almost every organism, not only for temperature but also for other classes of ligands, including gaseous solutes, and water.

Structural insights into the regulation of SigB activity by RsbV and RsbW

Bacillus subtilis SigB is an alternative sigma factor that initiates the transcription of stress-responsive genes. The anti-sigma factor RsbW tightly binds SigB to suppress its activity under normal growth conditions and releases it when nonphosphorylated RsbV binds to RsbW in response to stress signals. To understand the regulation of SigB activity by RsbV and RsbW based on structural features, crystal structures and a small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) envelope structure of the RsbV-RsbW complex were determined. The crystal structures showed that RsbV and RsbW form a heterotetramer in a similar manner to a SpoIIAA-SpoIIAB tetramer. Multi-angle light scattering and SAXS revealed that the RsbV-RsbW complex is an octamer in solution. Superimposition of the crystal structure on the SAXS envelope structure showed that the unique dimeric interface of RsbW mediates the formation of an RsbV-RsbW octamer and does not prevent RsbV and SigB from binding to RsbW. These results provide structural insights into the molecular assembly of the RsbV-RsbW complex and the regulation of SigB activity.

Purification and biochemical characterization of DnaK and its transcriptional activator RpoH from Neisseria gonorrhoeae

DnaK plays a central role in stress response in the important human pathogen Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The genes encoding the DnaK chaperone machine (DnaK/DnaJ/GrpE) in N. gonorrhoeae are transcribed from RpoH (σ(32))-dependent promoters. In this study, we cloned, purified and biochemically characterised N. gonorrhoeae DnaK (NgDnaK) and RpoH. The NgDnaK and RpoH sequences are 73 and 50 % identical to the sequences of their respective E. coli counterparts. Similar to EcDnaK, nucleotide-free NgDnaK exists as a mix of monomers, dimers and higher oligomeric species in solution, and dissociates into monomers on addition of ATP. Like E. coli σ(32), RpoH of N. gonorrhoeae is monomeric in solution. Kinetic analysis of the basal ATPase activity of purified NgDnaK revealed a V max of 193 pmol phosphate released per minute per microgram DnaK (which is significantly higher than reported basal ATPase activity of EcDnaK), and the turnover number against ATP was 0.4 min(-1) under our assay conditions. Nucleotide-free NgDnaK bound a short model substrate, NR-peptide, with micromolar affinity close to that reported for EcDnaK. Our analysis showed that interaction between N. gonorrhoeae RpoH and DnaK appears to be ATP-dependent and non-specific, in stark contrast to the E. coli DnaK system where σ(32) and DnaK interact as monomers even in the absence of ATP. Sequence comparison showed that the DnaK-binding site of σ(32) is not conserved in RpoH. Our findings suggest that the mechanism of DnaK/RpoH recognition in N. gonorrhoeae is different from that in E. coli.

Mechanism of protonophores-mediated induction of heat-shock response in Escherichia coli

Background

Protonophores are the agents that dissipate the proton-motive-force (PMF) across E. coli plasma membrane. As the PMF is known to be an energy source for the translocation of membrane and periplasmic proteins after their initial syntheses in cell cytoplasm, protonophores therefore inhibit the translocation phenomenon. In addition, protonophores also induce heat-shock-like stress response in E. coli cell. In this study, our motivation was to investigate that how the protonophores-mediated phenomena like inhibition of protein translocation and induction of heat-shock proteins in E. coli were correlated.

Results

Induction of heat-shock-like response in E. coli attained the maximum level after about 20 minutes of cell growth in the presence of a protonophore like carbonyl cyanide m-chloro phenylhydrazone (CCCP) or 2, 4-dinitrophenol (DNP). With induction, cellular level of the heat-shock regulator protein sigma-32 also increased. The increase in sigma-32 level was resulted solely from its stabilization, not from its increased synthesis. On the other hand, the protonophores inhibited the translocation of the periplasmic protein alkaline phosphatase (AP), resulting its accumulation in cell cytosol partly in aggregated and partly in dispersed form. On further cell growth, after withdrawal of the protonophores, the previously accumulated AP could not be translocated out; instead the AP-aggregate had been degraded perhaps by an induced heat-shock protease ClpP. Moreover, the non-translocated AP formed binary complex with the induced heat-shock chaperone DnaK and the excess cellular concentration of DnaK disallowed the induction of heat-shock response by the protonophores.

Conclusion

Our experimental results suggested that the protonophores-mediated accumulation and aggregation of membrane proteins (like AP) in cell cytosol had signaled the induction of heat-shock proteins in E. coli and the non-translocated protein aggregates were possibly degraded by an induced heat-shock protease ClpP. Moreover, the induction of heat-shock response occurred by the stabilization of sigma-32. As, normally the DnaK-bound sigma-32 was known to be degraded by the heat-shock protease FtsH, our experimental results further suggested that the engagement of DnaK with the non-translocated proteins (like AP) had made the sigma-32 free and stable.

Theoretical and experimental investigation of chaperone effects on soluble recombinant proteins in Escherichia coli: effect of free DnaK level on temperature-induced recombinant streptokinase production

Modeling and analysis of genetic networks have become increasingly important in the investigation of cellular processes. The genetic networks involved in cellular stress response can have a critical effect on the productivity of recombinant proteins. In this work, it was found that the temperature-inducible expression system for the production of soluble recombinant streptokinase in Escherichia coli resulted in a lower productivity compared to the chemically-induced system. To investigate the effect of the induced cellular response due to temperature up-shift a model-based approach is adopted. The role played by the major molecular chaperone teams DnaK–DnaJ–GrpE and GroEL–GroES on the productivity of recombinant streptokinase was experimentally determined. Based on these investigations, a detailed mechanistic mathematical model was developed for the cellular response during the temperature-induced recombinant streptokinase production. The model simulations were found to have a good qualitative agreement with the experimental results. The mechanistic mathematical model was validated with the experiments conducted on a σ³² mutant strain. Detailed analysis of the parameter sensitivities of the model indicated that the level of free DnaK chaperone in the cell has the major effect on the productivity of recombinant streptokinase during temperature induction. Analysis of the model simulations also shows that down regulation or selective redirection of the heat shock proteins could be a better way of manipulating the cellular stress response than overexpression or deletion. In other words, manipulating the system properties resulting from the interaction of the components is better than manipulating the individual components. Although our results are specific to a recombinant protein (streptokinase) and the expression system (E. coli), we believe that such a systems-biological approach has several advantages over conventional experimental approaches and could be in principle extended to bigger genetic networks as well as other recombinant proteins and expression systems.

Direct CIII-HflB interaction is responsible for the inhibition of the HflB (FtsH)-mediated proteolysis of Escherichia coli sigma(32) by lambdaCIII

The CIII protein of bacteriophage lambda exhibits antiproteolytic activity against the ubiquitous metalloprotease HflB (FtsH) of Escherichia coli, thereby stabilizing the lambdaCII protein and promoting lysogenic development of the phage. CIII also protects E.coli sigma(32), another substrate of HflB. We have recently shown that the protection of CII from HflB by CIII involves direct CIII-HflB binding, without any interaction between CII and CIII [HalderS, DattaAB & Parrack P (2007) J Bacteriol189, 8130-8138]. Such a mode of action for lambdaCIII would be independent of the HflB substrate. In this study, we tested the ability of CIII to protect sigma(32) from HflB digestion. The inhibition of HflB-mediated proteolysis of sigma(32) by CIII is very similar to that of lambdaCII, characterized by an enhanced protection by the core CIII peptide CIIIC (amino acids 14-41 of lambdaCIII) and a lack of interaction between sigma(32) and CIII.

Tuning of DnaK chaperone action by nonnative protein sensor DnaJ and thermosensor GrpE

DnaK, an Hsp70 molecular chaperone, processes its substrates in an ATP-driven cycle, which is controlled by the co-chaperones DnaJ and GrpE. The kinetic analysis of substrate binding and release has as yet been limited to fluorescence-labeled peptides. Here, we report a comprehensive kinetic analysis of the chaperone action with protein substrates. The kinetic partitioning of the (ATP x DnaK) x substrate complexes between dissociation and conversion into stable (ADP x DnaK) x substrate complexes is determined by DnaJ. In the case of substrates that allow the formation of ternary (ATP x DnaK) x substrate x DnaJ complexes, the cis-effect of DnaJ markedly accelerates ATP hydrolysis. This triage mechanism efficiently selects from the (ATP x DnaK) x substrate complexes those to be processed in the chaperone cycle; at 45 degrees C, the fraction of protein complexes fed into the cycle is 20 times higher than that of peptide complexes. The thermosensor effect of the ADP/ATP exchange factor GrpE retards the release of substrate from the cycle at higher temperatures; the fraction of total DnaK in stable (ADP x DnaK) x substrate complexes is 2 times higher at 45 degrees C than at 25 degrees C. Monitoring the cellular situation by DnaJ as nonnative protein sensor and GrpE as thermosensor thus directly adapts the operational mode of the DnaK system to heat shock conditions.

Antagonists of Hsp16.3, a low-molecular-weight mycobacterial chaperone and virulence factor, derived from phage-displayed peptide libraries

The persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a major cause of concern in tuberculosis (TB) therapy. In the persistent mode the pathogen can resist drug therapy, allowing the possibility of reactivation of the disease. Several protein factors have been identified that contribute to persistence, one of them being the 16-kDa low-molecular-weight mycobacterial heat shock protein Hsp16.3, a homologue of the mammalian eye lens protein alpha-crystallin. It is believed that Hsp16.3 plays a key role in the persistence phase by protecting essential proteins from being irreversibly denatured. Because of the close association of Hsp16.3 with persistence, an attempt has been made to develop inhibitors against it. Random peptide libraries displayed on bacteriophage M13 were screened for Hsp16.3 binding. Two phage clones were identified that bind to the Hsp16.3 protein. The corresponding synthetic peptides, an 11-mer and a 16-mer, were able to bind Hsp16.3 and inhibit its chaperone activity in vitro in a dose-dependent manner. Little or no effect of these peptides was observed on alphaB-crystallin, a homologous protein that is a key component of human eye lens, indicating that there is an element of specificity in the observed inhibition. Two histidine residues appear to be common to the selected peptides. Nuclear magnetic resonance studies performed with the 11-mer peptide indicate that in this case these two histidines may be the crucial binding determinants. The peptide inhibitors of Hsp16.3 thus obtained could serve as the basis for developing potent drugs against persistent TB.

Sigma 32-dependent promoter activity in vivo: sequence determinants of the groE promoter

The Escherichia coli transcription factor sigma 32 binds to core RNA polymerase to form the holoenzyme responsible for transcription initiation at heat shock promoters, utilized upon exposure of the cell to higher temperatures. We have developed two ways to assay sigma 32-dependent RNA synthesis in E. coli. The plasmid-borne reporter gene for both is lacZ (beta-galactosidase), driven by the groE promoter. In one application, the cells are exposed to a temperature of 42 degrees C in order to induce accumulation of endogenous sigma 32. The other involves isopropylthiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)-induced synthesis of sigma 32 at 30 degrees C from a gene contained on a second plasmid. The latter employs DnaK(-) cells, which additionally contained a second mutation, inactivating the endogenous sigma 32 gene (Bukau and Walker, EMBO J. 9:4027-4036, 1990). These assays were used to delineate the sequences CTTGA (-37 to -33) and GNCCCCATNT (-18 to -9) as important for sigma 32 promoter activity. At each of the specified base pairs, substitutions were found which reduced promoter activity by greater than 75%. Activity was also dependent upon the number of base pairs separating the two regions.

Mapping temperature-induced conformational changes in the Escherichia coli heat shock transcription factor sigma 32 by amide hydrogen exchange

Stress conditions such as heat shock alter the transcriptional profile in all organisms. In Escherichia coli the heat shock transcription factor, sigma 32, out-competes upon temperature up-shift the housekeeping sigma-factor, sigma 70, for binding to core RNA polymerase and initiates heat shock gene transcription. To investigate possible heat-induced conformational changes in sigma 32 we performed amide hydrogen (H/D) exchange experiments under optimal growth and heat shock conditions combined with mass spectrometry. We found a rapid exchange of around 220 of the 294 amide hydrogens at 37 degrees C, indicating that sigma 32 adopts a highly flexible structure. At 42 degrees C we observed a slow correlated exchange of 30 additional amide hydrogens and localized it to a helix-loop-helix motif within domain sigma 2 that is responsible for the recognition of the -10 region in heat shock promoters. The correlated exchange is shown to constitute a reversible unfolding with a half-life of about 30 min due to a temperature-dependent decrease in stabilization energy. We propose that this gradual decrease in stabilization energy of domain sigma 2 with increasing temperatures facilitates the unfolding of sigma 32 by the AAA+ protease FtsH thereby decreasing its half-life. Taken together our data show that the sigma 2 domain of sigma 32 can act as a thermosensor, which might be important for the heat shock regulation.

Structure-function studies of Escherichia coli RpoH (sigma32) by in vitro linker insertion mutagenesis

The sigma factor RpoH (sigma(32)) is the key regulator of the heat shock response in Escherichia coli. Many structural and functional properties of the sigma factor are poorly understood. To gain further insight into RpoH regions that are either important or dispensable for its cellular activity, we generated a collection of tetrapeptide insertion variants by a recently established in vitro linker insertion mutagenesis technique. Thirty-one distinct insertions were obtained, and their sigma factor activity was analyzed by using a groE-lacZ reporter fusion in an rpoH-negative background. Our study provides a map of permissive sites which tolerate linker insertions and of functionally important regions at which a linker insertion impairs sigma factor activity. Selected linker insertion mutants will be discussed in the light of known sigma factor properties and in relation to a modeled structure of an RpoH fragment containing region 2.