Functional insensitivity of the cytochrome b6f complex to structure changes in the hinge region of the Rieske iron-sulfur protein

The cytochrome b6f complex: plastoquinol oxidation and regulation of electron transport in chloroplasts

In oxygenic photosynthetic systems, the cytochrome b6f (Cytb6f) complex (plastoquinol:plastocyanin oxidoreductase) is a heart of the hub that provides connectivity between photosystems (PS) II and I. In this review, the structure and function of the Cytb6f complex are briefly outlined, being focused on the mechanisms of a bifurcated (two-electron) oxidation of plastoquinol (PQH2). In plant chloroplasts, under a wide range of experimental conditions (pH and temperature), a diffusion of PQH2 from PSII to the Cytb6f does not limit the intersystem electron transport. The overall rate of PQH2 turnover is determined mainly by the first step of the bifurcated oxidation of PQH2 at the catalytic site Qo, i.e., the reaction of electron transfer from PQH2 to the Fe2S2 cluster of the high-potential Rieske iron-sulfur protein (ISP). This point has been supported by the quantum chemical analysis of PQH2 oxidation within the framework of a model system including the Fe2S2 cluster of the ISP and surrounding amino acids, the low-potential heme b6L, Glu78 and 2,3,5-trimethylbenzoquinol (the tail-less analog of PQH2). Other structure-function relationships and mechanisms of electron transport regulation of oxygenic photosynthesis associated with the Cytb6f complex are briefly outlined: pH-dependent control of the intersystem electron transport and the regulatory balance between the operation of linear and cyclic electron transfer chains.

Electron Transport in Chloroplasts: Regulation and Alternative Pathways of Electron Transfer

This work represents an overview of electron transport regulation in chloroplasts as considered in the context of structure-function organization of photosynthetic apparatus in plants. Main focus of the article is on bifurcated oxidation of plastoquinol by the cytochrome b6f complex, which represents the rate-limiting step of electron transfer between photosystems II and I. Electron transport along the chains of non-cyclic, cyclic, and pseudocyclic electron flow, their relationships to generation of the trans-thylakoid difference in electrochemical potentials of protons in chloroplasts, and pH-dependent mechanisms of regulation of the cytochrome b6f complex are considered. Redox reactions with participation of molecular oxygen and ascorbate, alternative mediators of electron transport in chloroplasts, have also been discussed.

Cytochrome b6f - Orchestrator of photosynthetic electron transfer

Cytochrome b₆f (cytb₆f) lies at the heart of the light-dependent reactions of oxygenic photosynthesis, where it serves as a link between photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I (PSI) through the oxidation and reduction of the electron carriers plastoquinol (PQH₂) and plastocyanin (Pc). A mechanism of electron bifurcation, known as the Q-cycle, couples electron transfer to the generation of a transmembrane proton gradient for ATP synthesis. Cytb₆f catalyses the rate-limiting step in linear electron transfer (LET), is pivotal for cyclic electron transfer (CET) and plays a key role as a redox-sensing hub involved in the regulation of light-harvesting, electron transfer and photosynthetic gene expression. Together, these characteristics make cytb₆f a judicious target for genetic manipulation to enhance photosynthetic yield, a strategy which already shows promise. In this review we will outline the structure and function of cytb₆f with a particular focus on new insights provided by the recent high-resolution map of the complex from Spinach.

Structural and functional contributions of lipids to the stability and activity of the photosynthetic cytochrome b 6 f lipoprotein complex

The photosynthetic cytochrome b ₆ f complex, a homodimer containing eight distinct subunits and 26 transmembrane helices per monomer, catalyzes proton-coupled electron transfer across the thylakoid membrane. The 2.5-Å-resolution structure of the complex from the cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. revealed the presence of 23 lipid-binding sites per monomer. Although the crystal structure of the cytochrome b ₆ f from a plant source has not yet been solved, the identities of the lipids present in a plant b ₆ f complex have previously been determined, indicating that the predominant lipid species are monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol (SQDG). Despite the extensive structural analyses of b ₆ f-lipid interactions, the basis of the stabilization by lipids remains poorly understood. In the present study, we report on the effect of individual lipids on the structural and functional integrity of the b ₆ f complex, purified from Spinacea oleracea It was found that (i) galactolipids (MGDG, DGDG, and SQDG) and phospholipids dilinolenoyl-phosphatidylglycerol (DLPG), 1,2-dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol (DOPG), and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphatidylcholine (DOPC) structurally stabilize the complex to varying degrees; (ii) SQDG has a major role in stabilizing the dimeric complex; (iii) the b ₆ f complex is stabilized by incorporation into nanodiscs or bicelles; (iv) removal of bound phospholipid by phospholipase A₂ inactivates the cytochrome complex; and (v) activity can be restored significantly by the addition of the anionic lipid PG, which is attributed to stabilization of the quinone portal and the hinge region of the iron-sulfur protein.

Role of domain swapping in the hetero-oligomeric cytochrome b6f lipoprotein complex

Domain swapping that contributes to the stability of biologically crucial multisubunit complexes has been implicated in protein oligomerization. In the case of membrane protein assemblies, domain swapping of the iron-sulfur protein (ISP) subunit occurs in the hetero-oligomeric cytochrome b6f and bc1 complexes, which are organized as symmetric dimers that generate the transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient utilized for ATP synthesis. In these complexes, the ISP C-terminal predominantly β-sheet extrinsic domain containing the redox-active [2Fe-2S] cluster resides on the electrochemically positive side of each monomer in the dimeric complex. This domain is bound to the membrane sector of the complex through an N-terminal transmembrane α-helix that is "swapped' to the other monomer of the complex where it spans the complex and the membrane. Detailed analysis of the function and structure of the b6f complex isolated from the cyanobacterium Fremyella diplosiphon SF33 shows that the domain-swapped ISP structure is necessary for function but is not necessarily essential for maintenance of the dimeric structure of the complex. On the basis of crystal structures of the cytochrome complex, the stability of the cytochrome dimer is attributed to specific intermonomer protein-protein and protein-lipid hydrophobic interactions. The geometry of the domain-swapped ISP structure is proposed to be a consequence of the requirement that the anchoring helix of the ISP not perturb the heme organization or quinone channel in the conserved core of each monomer.

The cytochrome b6f complex at the crossroad of photosynthetic electron transport pathways

Regulation of photosynthetic electron transport at the level of the cytochrome b6f complex provides efficient performance of the chloroplast electron transport chain (ETC). In this review, after brief overview of the structural organization of the chloroplast ETC, the consideration of the problem of electron transport control is focused on the plastoquinone (PQ) turnover and its interaction with the b6f complex. The data available show that the rates of plastoquinol (PQH2) formation in PSII and its diffusion to the b6f complex do not limit the overall rate of electron transfer between photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I (PSI). Analysis of experimental and theoretical data demonstrates that the rate-limiting step in the intersystem chain of electron transport is determined by PQH2 oxidation at the Qo-site of the b6f complex, which is accompanied by the proton release into the thylakoid lumen. The acidification of the lumen causes deceleration of PQH2 oxidation, thus impeding the intersystem electron transport. Two other mechanisms of regulation of the intersystem electron transport have been considered: (i) "state transitions" associated with the light-induced redistribution of solar energy between PSI and PSII, and (ii) redistribution of electron fluxes between alternative pathways (noncyclic electron transport and cyclic electron flow around PSI).

Internal lipid architecture of the hetero-oligomeric cytochrome b6f complex

The role of lipids in the assembly, structure, and function of hetero-oligomeric membrane protein complexes is poorly understood. The dimeric photosynthetic cytochrome b6f complex, a 16-mer of eight distinct subunits and 26 transmembrane helices, catalyzes transmembrane proton-coupled electron transfer for energy storage. Using a 2.5 Å crystal structure of the dimeric complex, we identified 23 distinct lipid-binding sites per monomer. Annular lipids are proposed to provide a connection for super-complex formation with the photosystem-I reaction center and the LHCII kinase enzyme for transmembrane signaling. Internal lipids mediate crosslinking to stabilize the domain-swapped iron-sulfur protein subunit, dielectric heterogeneity within intermonomer and intramonomer electron transfer pathways, and dimer stabilization through lipid-mediated intermonomer interactions. This study provides a complete structure analysis of lipid-mediated functions in a multi-subunit membrane protein complex and reveals lipid sites at positions essential for assembly and function.

pH-dependent regulation of electron transport and ATP synthesis in chloroplasts

This review is focused on pH-dependent mechanisms of regulation of photosynthetic electron transport and ATP synthesis in chloroplasts. The light-induced acidification of the thylakoid lumen is known to decelerate the plastoquinol oxidation by the cytochrome b 6 f complex, thus impeding the electron flow between photosystem II and photosystem I. Acidification of the lumen also triggers the dissipation of excess energy in the light-harvesting antenna of photosystem II, thereby protecting the photosynthetic apparatus against a solar stress. After brief description of structural and functional organization of the chloroplast electron transport chain, our attention is focused on the nature of the rate-limiting step of electron transfer between photosystem II and photosystem I. In the context of pH-dependent mechanism of photosynthetic control in chloroplasts, the mechanisms of plastoquinol oxidation by the cytochrome b 6 f complex have been considered. The light-induced alkalization of stroma is another factor of pH-dependent regulation of electron transport in chloroplasts. Alkalization of stroma induces activation of the Bassham-Benson-Calvin cycle reactions, thereby promoting efflux of electrons from photosystem I to NADP(+). The mechanisms of the light-induced activation of ATP synthase are briefly considered.

Lipid-induced conformational changes within the cytochrome b6f complex of oxygenic photosynthesis

Cytochrome b6f catalyzes quinone redox reactions within photosynthetic membranes to generate a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient for ATP synthesis. A key step involves the transfer of an electron from the [2Fe-2S] cluster of the iron-sulfur protein (ISP) extrinsic domain to the cytochrome f heme across a distance of 26 Å, which is too large for competent electron transfer but could be bridged by translation-rotation of the ISP. Here we report the first crystallographic evidence of significant motion of the ISP extrinsic domain. It is inferred that extensive crystallographic disorder of the ISP extrinsic domain indicates conformational flexibility. The ISP disorder observed in this structure, in contrast to the largely ordered ISP structure observed in the b6f complex supplemented with neutral lipids, is attributed to electrostatic interactions arising from anionic lipids.

Transmembrane signaling and assembly of the cytochrome b6f-lipidic charge transfer complex

Structure-function properties of the cytochrome b6f complex are sufficiently unique compared to those of the cytochrome bc1 complex that b6f should not be considered a trivially modified bc1 complex. A unique property of the dimeric b6f complex is its involvement in transmembrane signaling associated with the p-side oxidation of plastoquinol. Structure analysis of lipid binding sites in the cyanobacterial b6f complex prepared by hydrophobic chromatography shows that the space occupied by the H transmembrane helix in the cytochrome b subunit of the bc1 complex is mostly filled by a lipid in the b6f crystal structure. It is suggested that this space can be filled by the domain of a transmembrane signaling protein. The identification of lipid sites and likely function defines the intra-membrane conserved central core of the b6f complex, consisting of the seven trans-membrane helices of the cytochrome b and subunit IV polypeptides. The other six TM helices, contributed by cytochrome f, the iron-sulfur protein, and the four peripheral single span subunits, define a peripheral less conserved domain of the complex. The distribution of conserved and non-conserved domains of each monomer of the complex, and the position and inferred function of a number of the lipids, suggests a model for the sequential assembly in the membrane of the eight subunits of the b6f complex, in which the assembly is initiated by formation of the cytochrome b6-subunit IV core sub-complex in a monomer unit. Two conformations of the unique lipidic chlorophyll a, defined in crystal structures, are described, and functions of the outlying β-carotene, a possible 'latch' in supercomplex formation, are discussed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Respiratory complex III and related bc complexes.

Structure of a thermophilic cyanobacterial b6f-type Rieske protein

The `Rieske protein' PetC is one of the key subunits of the cytochrome b(6)f complex. Its Rieske-type [2Fe-2S] cluster participates in the photosynthetic electron-transport chain. Overexpression and careful structure analysis at 2.0 Å resolution of the extrinsic soluble domain of PetC from the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1 enabled in-depth spectroscopic and structural characterization and suggested novel structural features. In particular, both the protein structure and the positions of the internal water molecules unexpectedly showed a higher similarity to eukaryotic PetCs than to other prokaryotic PetCs. The structure also revealed a deep pocket on the PetC surface which is oriented towards the membrane surface in the whole complex. Its surface properties suggest a binding site for a hydrophobic compound and the complete conservation of the pocket-forming residues in all known PetC sequences indicates the functional importance of this pocket in the cytochrome b(6)f complex.

On rate limitations of electron transfer in the photosynthetic cytochrome b6f complex

Considering information in the crystal structures of the cytochrome b(6)f complex relevant to the rate-limiting step in oxygenic photosynthesis, it is enigmatic that electron transport in the complex is not limited by the large distance, approximately 26 Å, between the iron-sulfur cluster (ISP) and its electron acceptor, cytochrome f. This enigma has been explained for the respiratory bc(1) complex by a crystal structure with a greatly shortened cluster-heme c(1) distance, leading to a concept of ISP dynamics in which the ISP soluble domain undergoes a translation-rotation conformation change and oscillates between positions relatively close to the cyt c(1) heme and a membrane-proximal position close to the ubiquinol electron-proton donor. Comparison of cytochrome b(6)f structures shows a variation in cytochrome f heme position that suggests the possibility of flexibility and motion of the extended cytochrome f structure that could entail a transient decrease in cluster-heme f distance. The dependence of cyt f turnover on lumen viscosity is consistent with a role of ISP - cyt f dynamics in determination of the rate-limiting step under conditions of low light intensity. Under conditions of low light intensity and proton electrochemical gradient present, for example, under a leaf canopy, it is proposed that a rate limitation of electron transport in the b(6)f complex may also arise from steric constraints in the entry/exit portal for passage of the plastoquinol and -quinone to/from its oxidation site proximal to the iron-sulfur cluster.

The Q cycle of cytochrome bc complexes: a structure perspective

Aspects of the crystal structures of the hetero-oligomeric cytochrome bc(1) and b(6)f ("bc") complexes relevant to their electron/proton transfer function and the associated redox reactions of the lipophilic quinones are discussed. Differences between the b(6)f and bc(1) complexes are emphasized. The cytochrome bc(1) and b(6)f dimeric complexes diverge in structure from a core of subunits that coordinate redox groups consisting of two bis-histidine coordinated hemes, a heme b(n) and b(p) on the electrochemically negative (n) and positive (p) sides of the complex, the high potential [2Fe-2S] cluster and c-type heme at the p-side aqueous interface and aqueous phase, respectively, and quinone/quinol binding sites on the n- and p-sides of the complex. The bc(1) and b(6)f complexes diverge in subunit composition and structure away from this core. b(6)f Also contains additional prosthetic groups including a c-type heme c(n) on the n-side, and a chlorophyll a and β-carotene. Common structure aspects; functions of the symmetric dimer. (I) Quinone exchange with the bilayer. An inter-monomer protein-free cavity of approximately 30Å along the membrane normal×25Å (central inter-monomer distance)×15Å (depth in the center), is common to both bc(1) and b(6)f complexes, providing a niche in which the lipophilic quinone/quinol (Q/QH(2)) can be exchanged with the membrane bilayer. (II) Electron transfer. The dimeric structure and the proximity of the two hemes b(p) on the electrochemically positive side of the complex in the two monomer units allow the possibility of two alternate routes of electron transfer across the complex from heme b(p) to b(n): intra-monomer and inter-monomer involving electron cross-over between the two hemes b(p). A structure-based summary of inter-heme distances in seven bc complexes, representing mitochondrial, chromatophore, cyanobacterial, and algal sources, indicates that, based on the distance parameter, the intra-monomer pathway would be favored kinetically. (III) Separation of quinone binding sites. A consequence of the dimer structure and the position of the Q/QH(2) binding sites is that the p-side QH(2) oxidation and n-side Q reduction sites are each well separated. Therefore, in the event of an overlap in residence time by QH(2) or Q molecules at the two oxidation or reduction sites, their spatial separation would result in minimal steric interference between extended Q or QH(2) isoprenoid chains. (IV) Trans-membrane QH(2)/Q transfer. (i) n/p-side QH(2)/Q transfer may be hindered by lipid acyl chains; (ii) the shorter less hindered inter-monomer pathway across the complex would not pass through the center of the cavity, as inferred from the n-side antimycin site on one monomer and the p-side stigmatellin site on the other residing on the same surface of the complex. (V) Narrow p-side portal for QH(2)/Q passage. The [2Fe-2S] cluster that serves as oxidant, and whose histidine ligand serves as a H(+) acceptor in the oxidation of QH(2), is connected to the inter-monomer cavity by a narrow extended portal, which is also occupied in the b(6)f complex by the 20 carbon phytyl chain of the bound chlorophyll.

Multiple Rieske proteins enable short- and long-term light adaptation of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

In contrast to eukaryotes, most cyanobacteria contain several isoforms of the Rieske iron-sulfur protein, PetC, resulting in heterogeneity in the composition of the cytochrome b(6)f complexes. Of three isoforms in the mesophilic cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803, PetC1 is the major Rieske protein in the cytochrome b(6)f complex, whereas the physiological function of PetC2 and PetC3 is still uncertain. Comparison of wild type and various petC-deficient strains under selected light conditions revealed distinct functional differences: high-light exposure of wild type cells resulted in a significantly enhanced petC2 transcript level, whereas a Delta petC1 mutant showed a low cytochrome b(6)f content, low electron flux, and a considerably increased accumulation of cytochrome-bd oxidase. In contrast to wild type and Delta petC1, Delta petC2 and Delta petC3 strains still grew fast under high-light conditions although all three Rieske proteins are required for maximal electron transport rates. Although the presence of PetC3 appears to be required for activation of the cyclic electron transport, state transitions were more effective in the absence of PetC2 and/or PetC3. In summary, our data suggest defined roles of the various PetC proteins in short- and long-term light adaptation.

Localization of cytochrome b6f complexes implies an incomplete respiratory chain in cytoplasmic membranes of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

The cytochrome b(6)f complex is an integral part of the photosynthetic and respiratory electron transfer chain of oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. The core of this complex is composed of four subunits, cytochrome b, cytochrome f, subunit IV and the Rieske protein (PetC). In this study deletion mutants of all three petC genes of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 were constructed to investigate their localization, involvement in electron transfer, respiration and photohydrogen evolution. Immunoblots revealed that PetC1, PetC2, and all other core subunits were exclusively localized in the thylakoids, while the third Rieske protein (PetC3) was the only subunit found in the cytoplasmic membrane. Deletion of petC3 and both of the quinol oxidases failed to elicit a change in respiration rate, when compared to the respective oxidase mutant. This supports a different function of PetC3 other than respiratory electron transfer. We conclude that the cytoplasmic membrane of Synechocystis lacks both a cytochrome c oxidase and the cytochrome b(6)f complex and present a model for the major electron transfer pathways in the two membranes of Synechocystis. In this model there is no proton pumping electron transfer complex in the cytoplasmic membrane. Cyclic electron transfer was impaired in all petC1 mutants. Nonetheless, hydrogenase activity and photohydrogen evolution of all mutants were similar to wild type cells. A reduced linear electron transfer and an increased quinol oxidase activity seem to counteract an increased hydrogen evolution in this case. This adds further support to the close interplay between the cytochrome bd oxidase and the bidirectional hydrogenase.

Structure-function of the cytochrome b6f complex

The structure and function of the cytochrome b6f complex is considered in the context of recent crystal structures of the complex as an eight subunit, 220 kDa symmetric dimeric complex obtained from the thermophilic cyanobacterium, Mastigocladus laminosus, and the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. A major problem confronted in crystallization of the cyanobacterial complex, proteolysis of three of the subunits, is discussed along with initial efforts to identify the protease. The evolution of these cytochrome complexes is illustrated by conservation of the hydrophobic heme-binding transmembrane domain of the cyt b polypeptide between b6f and bc1 complexes, and the rubredoxin-like membrane proximal domain of the Rieske [2Fe-2S] protein. Pathways of coupled electron and proton transfer are discussed in the framework of a modified Q cycle, in which the heme c(n), not found in the bc1 complex, but electronically tightly coupled to the heme b(n) of the b6f complex, is included. Crystal structures of the cyanobacterial complex with the quinone analogue inhibitors, NQNO or tridecyl-stigmatellin, show the latter to be ligands of heme c(n), implicating heme c(n) as an n-side plastoquinone reductase. Existing questions include (a) the details of the shuttle of: (i) the [2Fe-2S] protein between the membrane-bound PQH2 electron/H+ donor and the cytochrome f acceptor to complete the p-side electron transfer circuit; (ii) PQ/PQH2 between n- and p-sides of the complex across the intermonomer quinone exchange cavity, through the narrow portal connecting the cavity with the p-side [2Fe-2S] niche; (b) the role of the n-side of the b6f complex and heme c(n) in regulation of the relative rates of noncyclic and cyclic electron transfer. The likely presence of cyclic electron transport in the b6f complex, and of heme c(n) in the firmicute bc complex suggests the concept that hemes b(n)-c(n) define a branch point in bc complexes that can support electron transport pathways that differ in detail from the Q cycle supported by the bc1 complex.

Structure-Function, Stability, and Chemical Modification of the Cyanobacterial Cytochrome b6f Complex from Nostoc sp. PCC 7120

The crystal structure of the cyanobacterial cytochrome b(6)f complex has previously been solved to 3.0-A resolution using the thermophilic Mastigocladus laminosus whose genome has not been sequenced. Several unicellular cyanobacteria, whose genomes have been sequenced and are tractable for mutagenesis, do not yield b(6)f complex in an intact dimeric state with significant electron transport activity. The genome of Nostoc sp. PCC 7120 has been sequenced and is closer phylogenetically to M. laminosus than are unicellular cyanobacteria. The amino acid sequences of the large core subunits and four small peripheral subunits of Nostoc are 88 and 80% identical to those in the M. laminosus b(6)f complex. Purified b(6)f complex from Nostoc has a stable dimeric structure, eight subunits with masses similar to those of M. laminosus, and comparable electron transport activity. The crystal structure of the native b(6)f complex, determined to a resolution of 3.0A (PDB id: 2ZT9), is almost identical to that of M. laminosus. Two unique aspects of the Nostoc complex are: (i) a dominant conformation of heme b(p) that is rotated 180 degrees about the alpha- and gamma-meso carbon axis relative to the orientation in the M. laminosus complex and (ii) acetylation of the Rieske iron-sulfur protein (PetC) at the N terminus, a post-translational modification unprecedented in cyanobacterial membrane and electron transport proteins, and in polypeptides of cytochrome bc complexes from any source. The high spin electronic character of the unique heme c(n) is similar to that previously found in the b(6)f complex from other sources.

Structural basis for the mechanism of electron bifurcation at the quinol oxidation site of the cytochrome bc1 complex

At the heart of the Q cycle hypothesis, the cytochrome bc1 complex (bc1) is required to separate the two electrons from a quinol molecule at the quinol oxidation site. Recent studies have brought to light an intricate mechanism for this bifurcated electron transfer. A survey of the protein data bank shows 30 entries for the structures of bc1 and the homologous b6 f complex. These structures provide considerable insights into the structural organization of mitochondrial, bacterial, and plant enzymes. Crystallographic binding studies of bc1 with either quinone reduction (QN) and/or quinol oxidation (QP) site inhibitors offer atomic details on how these compounds interact with residues at their respective sites. Most importantly, the different locations and apparent flexibility observed in crystals for the extrinsic domain of the iron-sulfur protein (ISP) subunit suggest a mechanism for electron bifurcation at the QP site. Analyses of various inhibitor-bound structures revealed two classes of QP site inhibitors: Pm inhibitors that promote ISP mobility and Pf inhibitors that favor the fixation of the ISP conformation. Those analyses also shed light on a possible process by which the ISP motion switch is controlled. The first phase reduction of ISP is shown to be comparable to the reduction of the bL heme by pre-steady state kinetic analysis, whereas the second phase reduction of ISP share similar kinetics with the reduction of the bH heme. The reduction of cyt c1 is measured much slower, indicating that the reduced ISP remains bound at the QP site until the reduced heme bL is oxidized by the heme bH and supporting the existence of a control mechanism for the ISP motion switch.

Transmembrane traffic in the cytochrome b6f complex

Crystal structures and their implications for function are described for the energy transducing hetero-oligomeric dimeric cytochrome b6f complex of oxygenic photosynthesis from the thermophilic cyanobacterium, Mastigocladus laminosus, and the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The complex has a cytochrome b core and a central quinone exchange cavity, defined by the two monomers that are very similar to those in the respiratory cytochrome bc1 complex. The pathway of quinol/quinone (Q/QH2) transfer emphasizes the labyrinthine internal structure of the complex, including an 11x12 A portal through which Q/QH2, containing a 45-carbon isoprenoid chain, must pass. Three prosthetic groups are present in the b6f complex that are not found in the related bc1 complex: a chlorophyll (Chl) a, a beta-carotene, and a structurally unique covalently bound heme that does not possess amino acid side chains as axial ligands. It is hypothesized that this heme, exposed to the cavity and a neighboring plastoquinone and close to the positive surface potential of the complex, can function in cyclic electron transport via anionic ferredoxin.

A Brownian dynamics study of the interactions of the luminal domains of the cytochrome b6f complex with plastocyanin and cytochrome c6: the effects of the Rieske FeS protein on the interactions

The availability of the structures of the cytochrome b6f complex (cyt b6f), plastocyanin (PC), and cytochrome c6 (cyt c6) from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii allowed us, for the first time, to model electron transfer interactions between the luminal domains of this complex (including cyt f and the Rieske FeS protein) and its redox partners in the same species. We also generated a model structure in which the FeS center of the Rieske protein was positioned closer to the heme of cyt f than observed in the crystal structure and studied its interactions with both PC and cyt c6. Our data showed that the Rieske protein in both the original crystal structure and in our modeled structure of the cyt b6f complex did not physically interfere with binding position or orientation of PC or cyt c6 on cyt f. PC docked on cyt f with the same orientation in the presence or the absence of the Rieske protein, which matched well with the previously reported NMR structures of complexes between cyt f and PC. When the FeS center of the Rieske protein was moved close to the heme of cyt f, it even enhanced the interaction rates. Studies using a cyt f modified in the 184-191 loop showed that the cyt f structure is a more important factor in determining the rate of complex formations than is the presence or the absence of the Rieske protein or its position with respect to cyt f.

Problems in obtaining diffraction-quality crystals of hetero-oligomeric integral membrane proteins

The major barrier responsible for the slow pace of structure determination of integral membrane proteins is the difficulty of crystallizing detergent-solubilized hydrophobic proteins, particularly hetero-oligomeric integral membrane proteins. For the latter class of multi-subunit proteins, we have encountered the following problems in addition to the ubiquitous problem of detergent compatibility: (i) instability caused by over-purification that results in delipidation; (ii) protease activity degrading exposed loops and termini of subunits of the complex that could not be inhibited; (iii) poor protein-protein contacts presumably arising from masking by the detergent micelle. Problem (i) could be ameliorated in crystallization of the cytochrome b(6)f complex by augmenting the delipidated complex with synthetic lipid. Problem (ii) has not been solved. Problem (iii) has been solved in other systems by the use of monoclonal antibodies (or other protein ligands) to increase the probability of protein-protein contacts. In the case of the complex formed by the cobalamin and colicin receptor, BtuB, and the receptor binding domain of colicin E3, the latter served as a ligand for protein-protein contacts that facilitated crystallization.

Intraprotein transfer of the quinone analogue inhibitor 2,5-dibromo-3-methyl-6-isopropyl-p-benzoquinone in the cytochrome b6f complex

Details are presented of the structural analysis of the cytochrome b(6)f complex from the thermophilic cyanobacterium, Mastigocladus laminosus, in the presence of the electrochemically positive (p)-side quinone analogue inhibitor, 2,5-dibromo-3-methyl-6-isopropylbenzoquinone (DBMIB). One DBMIB binding site was found. This site is peripheral to the quinone binding space defined by the binding sites of other p-side inhibitors previously resolved in cytochrome bc(1)/b(6)f complexes. This high-affinity site resides in a p-side interfacial niche bounded by cytochrome f, subunit IV, and cytochrome b(6), is close (8 A) to the p-side heme b, but distant (19 A) from the [2Fe-2S] cluster. No significant electron density associated with the DBMIB was found elsewhere in the structure. However, the site at which DBMIB can inhibit light-induced redox turnover is within a few A of the [2Fe-2S] cluster, as shown by the absence of inhibition in mutants of Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002 at iron sulfur protein-Leu-111 near the cluster. The ability of a minimum amount of initially oxidized DBMIB to inhibit turnover of WT complex after a second light flash implies that there is a light-activated movement of DBMIB from the distal peripheral site to an inhibitory site proximal to the [2Fe-2S] cluster. Together with the necessary passage of quinone/quinol through the small Q(p) portal in the complex, it is seen that transmembrane traffic of quinone-like molecules through the core of cytochrome bc complexes can be labyrinthine.

Multiple Rieske proteins in prokaryotes: where and why?

Many microbial genomes have been sequenced in the recent years. Multiple genes encoding Rieske iron-sulfur proteins, which are subunits of cytochrome bc-type complexes or oxygenases, have been detected in many pro- and eukaryotic genomes. The diversity of substrates, co-substrates and reactions offers obvious explanations for the diversity of the low potential Rieske proteins associated with oxygenases, but the physiological significance of the multiple genes encoding high potential Rieske proteins associated with the cytochrome bc-type complexes remains elusive. For some organisms, investigations into the function of the later group of genes have been initiated. Here, we summarize recent finding on the characteristics and physiological functions of multiple high potential Rieske proteins in prokaryotes. We suggest that the existence of multiple high potential Rieske proteins in prokaryotes could be one way of allowing an organism to adapt their electron transfer chains to changing environmental conditions.

Multiple Rieske genes in prokaryotes: exchangeable Rieske subunits in the cytochrome bc-complex of Rubrivivax gelatinosus

Bacterial cytochrome bc1-complex encoded by the petABC operon consists of three subunits, the Rieske iron-sulphur protein, the b-type cytochrome, and the c1-type cytochrome. Disruption of the petA gene of Rubrivivax gelatinosus is not lethal under photosynthetic growth conditions. However, deletion of both petA and petB results in a photosynthesis-deficient strain, suggesting the presence of a second gene encoding a Rieske protein and rescuing a functional cytochrome bc1-complex in the PETA1 mutant. The corresponding petA2 gene was identified and the PETA2 mutant could also grow under photosynthetic conditions. The double mutant PETA12, however, was unable to grow photosynthetically. The presence of a photo-induced cyclic electron transfer was tested by monitoring the kinetics of cytochrome photo-oxidation on intact cells; the data confirm the capacity of petA2 to replace petA1 in the bc1-complex to support photosynthesis. Soluble forms of both PetA1 and PetA2 Rieske proteins were purified from Escherichia coli and found to contain correctly inserted [2Fe-2S] clusters. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and midpoint potential measurements showed typical [2Fe-2S] signals and E(m) values of +275 mV for both Rieske proteins. The high amino acid sequence similarity and the obtained midpoint potential values argue for a functional role of these proteins in the cytochrome bc1-complex. The presence of duplicated Rieske genes is not restricted to R. gelatinosus. Phylogenetic trees of Rieske genes from Rubrivivax and other proteobacteria as well as from cyanobacteria were reconstructed. On the basis of the phylogenetic analyses, differing evolutionary origins of duplicated Rieske genes in proteo- and cyanobacteria are proposed.

Cytochrome b6 Arginine 214 of Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002, a Key Residue for Quinone-reductase Site Function and Turnover of the Cytochrome bf Complex

Quinone-reductase (Q(i)) domains of cyanobacterial/chloroplast cytochrome bf and bacterial/mitochondrial bc complexes differ markedly, and the cytochrome bf Q(i) site mechanism remains largely enigmatic. To investigate the bf Q(i) domain, we constructed the mutation R214H, which substitutes histidine for a conserved arginine in the cytochrome b(6) polypeptide of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. SPCC 7002. At high light intensity, the R214H mutant grew approximately 2.5-fold more slowly than the wild type. Slower growth arose from correspondingly slower overall turnover of the bf complex. Specifically, as shown in single flash turnover experiments of cytochrome b(6) reduction and oxidation, the R214H mutation partially blocked electron transfer to the Q(i) site, mimicking the effect of the Q(i) site inhibitor 2-N-4-hydroxyquinoline-N-oxide. The kinetics of cytochrome b(6) oxidation were largely unaffected by hydrogen-deuterium exchange in the mutant but were slowed considerably in the wild type. This suggests that although protonation events influenced the kinetics of cytochrome b(6) oxidation at the Q(i) site in the wild type, electron flow limited this reaction in the R214H mutant. Redox titration of membranes revealed midpoint potentials (E(m,7)) of the two b hemes similar to those in the wild type. Our data define cytochrome b(6) Arg(214) as a key residue for Q(i) site catalysis and turnover of the cytochrome bf complex. In the recent cytochrome bf structures, Arg(214) lies near the Q(i) pocket and the newly discovered c(i) or x heme. We propose a model for Q(i) site function and a role for Arg(214) in plastoquinone binding.

Molecular control of a bimodal distribution of quinone-analogue inhibitor binding sites in the cytochrome b(6)f complex

The 3.0-3.1A X-ray structures of the cytochrome b(6)f complex from Mastigocladus laminosus and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii obtained in the presence of the p-side quinone-analogue inhibitor tridecyl-stigmatellin (TDS) are very similar. A difference occurs in the p-side binding position of TDS. In C.reinhardtii, TDS binds in the ring-in mode, as previously found for stigmatellin in X-ray structures of the cytochrome bc(1) complex. In this mode, the H-bonding chromone ring moiety of the TDS bound in the Q(p) niche is proximal to the ISP [2Fe-2S] cluster, and its 13 carbon tail extends through a portal to the large inter-monomer quinone-exchange cavity. However, in M.laminosus, TDS binds in an oppositely oriented ring-out mode, with the tail inserted toward the Q(p) niche through the portal and the ring caught in the quinone-exchange cavity that is 20A away from the [2Fe-2S] cluster. Site-directed mutagenesis of residues that might determine TDS binding was performed with the related transformable cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002. The following changes in the sensitivity of electron transport activity to TDS and stigmatellin were observed: (a) little effect of mutation L193A in cytochrome b(6), which is proximal to the chromone of the ring-out TDS; (b) almost complete loss of sensitivity by mutation L111A in the ISP cluster binding region, which is close to the chromone of the ring-in TDS; (c) a ten and 60-fold increase associated with the mutation L81F in subunit IV. It was inferred that only the ring-in binding mode, in which the ring interacts with residues near the ISP, is inhibitory, and that residue 81 of subunit IV, which resides at the immediate entrance to the Q(p) niche, controls the relative binding affinity of inhibitor at the two different binding sites.

The Chloroplast Rieske Iron-Sulfur Protein

We have addressed the functional and structural roles of three domains of the chloroplast Rieske iron-sulfur protein; that is, the flexible hinge that connects the transmembrane helix to the soluble cluster-bearing domain, the N-terminal stromal protruding domain, and the transmembrane helix. To this aim mutants were generated in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Their capacities to assemble the cytochrome b6f complex, perform plastoquinol oxidation, and signal redox-induced activation of the light-harvesting complex II kinase during state transition were tested in vivo. Deletion of one residue and extensions of up to five residues in the flexible hinge had no significant effect on complex accumulation or electron transfer efficiency. Deletion of three residues (Delta3G) dramatically decreased reaction rates by a factor of approximately 10. These data indicate that the chloroplast iron-sulfur protein-linking domain is much more flexible than that of its counterpart in mitochondria. Despite greatly slowed catalysis in the Delta3G mutant, there was no apparent delay in light-harvesting complex II kinase activation or state transitions. This indicates that conformational changes occurring in the Rieske protein did not represent a limiting step for kinase activation within the time scale tested. No phenotype could be associated with mutations in the N-terminal stromal-exposed domain. In contrast, the N17V mutation in the Rieske protein transmembrane helix resulted in a large decrease in the cytochrome f synthesis rate. This reveals that the Rieske protein transmembrane helix plays an active role in assembly-mediated control of cytochrome f synthesis. We propose a structural model to interpret this phenomenon based on the C. reinhardtii cytochrome b6f structure.

Cytochrome bc complexes: a common core of structure and function surrounded by diversity in the outlying provinces

The atomic-level picture of transmembrane protein complexes in the photosynthetic membrane has now been completed by the recent publication of crystal structures of cytochrome b(6)f and photosystem II. The two structures of cytochrome b(6)f, together with previously reported structures of the cytochrome bc(1) respiratory complex, provide a basis for understanding the central electron and proton transfer events of photosynthesis and respiration. The protein structures and charge transfer events within the core of the complexes are highly similar, but the complexes differ in subunit and chromophore composition in proportion to the distance from the central redox site within the membrane near the electropositive side.

PetC1 is the major Rieske iron-sulfur protein in the cytochrome b6f complex of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Many of the completely sequenced cyanobacterial genomes contain a gene family that encodes for putative Rieske iron-sulfur proteins. The Rieske protein is one of the large subunits of the cytochrome bc-type complexes involved in respiratory and photosynthetic electron transfer. In contrast to all other subunits of this complex that are encoded by single genes, the genome of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803 contains three petC genes, all encoding potential Rieske subunits. Most interestingly, any of the petC genes can be deleted individually without altering the Synechocystis phenotype dramatically. In contrast, double deletion experiments revealed that petC1 and petC2 cannot be deleted in combination, whereas petC3 can be deleted together with any of the other two petC genes. Further results suggest a different physiological function for each of the Rieske proteins. Whereas PetC2 can partly replace the dominating Rieske isoform PetC1, PetC3 is unable to functionally replace either PetC1 or PetC2 and may have a special function involving a special donor with a lower redox potential than plastoquinone. A predominant role of PetC1, which is (partly) different from PetC2, is suggested by the mutational analysis and a detailed characterization of the electron transfer reactions in the mutant strains.

QO Site Deficiency Can Be Compensated by Extragenic Mutations in the Hinge Region of the Iron-Sulfur Protein in the bc1 Complex of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The mitochondrial bc(1) complex catalyzes the oxidation of ubiquinol and the reduction of cytochrome (cyt) c. The cyt b mutation A144F has been introduced in yeast by the biolistic method. This residue is located in the cyt b cd(1) amphipathic helix in the quinol-oxidizing (Q(O)) site. The resulting mutant was respiration-deficient and was affected in the quinol binding and electron transfer rates at the Q(O) site. An intragenic suppressor mutation was selected (A144F+F179L) that partially alleviated the defect of quinol oxidation of the original mutant A144F. The suppressor mutation F179L, located at less than 4 A from A144F, is likely to compensate directly the steric hindrance caused by phenylalanine at position 144. A second set of suppressor mutations was obtained, which also partially restored the quinol oxidation activity of the bc(1) complex. They were located about 20 A from A144F in the hinge region of the iron-sulfur protein (ISP) between residues 85 and 92. This flexible region is crucial for the movement of the ISP between cyt b and cyt c(1) during enzyme turnover. Our results suggested that the compensatory effect of the mutations in ISP was due to the repositioning of this subunit on cyt b during quinol oxidation. This genetic and biochemical study thus revealed the close interaction between the cyt b cd(1) helix in the quinol-oxidizing Q(O) site and the ISP via the flexible hinge region and that fine-tuning of the Q(O) site catalysis can be achieved by subtle changes in the linker domain of the ISP.

Structure of the cytochrome b6f complex of oxygenic photosynthesis: tuning the cavity

The cytochrome b6f complex provides the electronic connection between the photosystem I and photosystem II reaction centers of oxygenic photosynthesis and generates a transmembrane electrochemical proton gradient for adenosine triphosphate synthesis. A 3.0 angstrom crystal structure of the dimeric b6f complex from the thermophilic cyanobacterium Mastigocladus laminosus reveals a large quinone exchange cavity, stabilized by lipid, in which plastoquinone, a quinone-analog inhibitor, and a novel heme are bound. The core of the b6f complex is similar to the analogous respiratory cytochrome bc1 complex, but the domain arrangement outside the core and the complement of prosthetic groups are strikingly different. The motion of the Rieske iron-sulfur protein extrinsic domain, essential for electron transfer, must also be different in the b6f complex.