Asymmetric and Redox-specific Binding of Quinone and Quinol at Center N of the Dimeric Yeast Cytochrome bc1 Complex

Photoinduced electron transfer in cytochrome bc1: Dynamics of rotation of the Iron-sulfur protein during bifurcated electron transfer from ubiquinol to cytochrome c1 and cytochrome bL

The electron transfer reactions within wild-type Rhodobacter sphaeroides cytochrome bc₁ (cyt bc₁) were studied using a binuclear ruthenium complex to rapidly photooxidize cyt c₁. When cyt c₁, the iron‑sulfur center Fe₂S₂, and cyt b_H were reduced before the reaction, photooxidation of cyt c₁ led to electron transfer from Fe₂S₂ to cyt c₁ with a rate constant of k_a = 80,000 s^-1, followed by bifurcated reduction of both Fe₂S₂ and cyt b_L by QH₂ in the Q_o site with a rate constant of k₂ = 3000 s^-1. The resulting Q then traveled from the Q_o site to the Q_i site and oxidized one equivalent each of cyt b_L and cyt b_H with a rate constant of k₃ = 340 s^-1. The rate constant k_a was decreased in a nonlinear fashion by a factor of 53 as the viscosity was increased to 13.7. A mechanism that is consistent with the effect of viscosity involves rotational diffusion of the iron‑sulfur protein from the b state with reduced Fe₂S₂ close to cyt b_L to one or more intermediate states, followed by rotation to the final c₁ state with Fe₂S₂ close to cyt c₁, and rapid electron transfer to cyt c₁.

Identification and characterization of a non-canonical menaquinone-linked formate dehydrogenase

The Molybdenum/Tungsten-bispyranopterin guanine dinucleotides (Mo/W-bisPGD) family of Formate Dehydrogenases (FDHs) plays roles in several metabolic pathways ranging from carbon fixation to energy harvesting owing to their reaction with a wide variety of redox partners. Indeed, this metabolic plasticity results from the diverse structures, cofactor content, and substrates employed by partner subunits interacting with the catalytic hub. Here, we unveiled two non-canonical FDHs in Bacillus subtilis which are organized into two-subunit complexes with unique features, ForCE1 and ForCE2. We show that the ForC catalytic subunit interacts with an unprecedented partner subunit, ForE, and that its amino acid sequence within the active site deviates from the consensus residues typically associated with FDH activity, as a histidine residue is naturally substituted with a glutamine. The ForE essential subunit mediates the utilization of menaquinone as an electron acceptor as shown by the formate:menadione oxidoreductase activity of both enzymes, their copurification with menaquinone, and the distinctive detection of a protein-bound neutral menasemiquinone radical by multifrequency electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) experiments on the purified enzymes. Moreover, EPR characterization of both FDHs reveals the presence of several [Fe-S] clusters with distinct relaxation properties and a weakly anisotropic Mo(V) EPR signature, consistent with the characteristic Mo/bisPGD cofactor of this enzyme family. Altogether, this work enlarges our knowledge of the FDH family by identifying a non-canonical FDH, which differs in terms of architecture, amino acid conservation around the Mo cofactor, and reactivity.

Molecular and Supramolecular Structure of the Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation System: Implications for Pathology

Under aerobic conditions, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) converts the energy released by nutrient oxidation into ATP, the currency of living organisms. The whole biochemical machinery is hosted by the inner mitochondrial membrane (mtIM) where the protonmotive force built by respiratory complexes, dynamically assembled as super-complexes, allows the F1FO-ATP synthase to make ATP from ADP + Pi. Recently mitochondria emerged not only as cell powerhouses, but also as signaling hubs by way of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. However, when ROS removal systems and/or OXPHOS constituents are defective, the physiological ROS generation can cause ROS imbalance and oxidative stress, which in turn damages cell components. Moreover, the morphology of mitochondria rules cell fate and the formation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore in the mtIM, which, most likely with the F1FO-ATP synthase contribution, permeabilizes mitochondria and leads to cell death. As the multiple mitochondrial functions are mutually interconnected, changes in protein composition by mutations or in supercomplex assembly and/or in membrane structures often generate a dysfunctional cascade and lead to life-incompatible diseases or severe syndromes. The known structural/functional changes in mitochondrial proteins and structures, which impact mitochondrial bioenergetics because of an impaired or defective energy transduction system, here reviewed, constitute the main biochemical damage in a variety of genetic and age-related diseases.

Reduction midpoint potentials of bifurcating electron transfer flavoproteins

Recently, a variety of enzymes have been found to accept electrons from NAD(P)H yet reduce lower-potential carriers such as ferredoxin and flavodoxin semiquinone, in apparent violation of thermodynamics. The reaction is favorable overall, however, because these enzymes couple the foregoing endergonic one-electron transfer to exergonic transfer of the other electron from each NAD(P)H, in a process called "flavin-based electron bifurcation." The reduction midpoint potentials (E°s) of the multiple flavins in these enzymes are critical to their mechanisms. We describe methods we have found to be useful for measuring each of the E°s of each of the flavins in bifurcating electron transfer flavoproteins.

Analysis of the kinetics and bistability of ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidoreductase

Ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidoreductase, bc1 complex, is the enzyme in the respiratory chain of mitochondria responsible for the transfer reducing potential from ubiquinol to cytochrome c coupled to the movement of charge against the electrostatic potential across the mitochondrial inner membrane. The complex is also implicated in the generation of reactive oxygen species under certain conditions and is thus a contributor to cellular oxidative stress. Here, a biophysically detailed, thermodynamically consistent model of the bc1 complex for mammalian mitochondria is developed. The model incorporates the major redox centers near the Qo- and Qi-site of the enzyme, includes the pH-dependent redox reactions, accounts for the effect of the proton-motive force of the reaction rate, and simulates superoxide production at the Qo-site. The model consists of six distinct states characterized by the mobile electron distribution in the enzyme. Within each state, substates that correspond to various electron localizations exist in a rapid equilibrium distribution. The steady-state equation for the six-state system is parameterized using five independent data sets and validated in comparison to additional experimental data. Model analysis suggests that the pH-dependence on turnover is primarily due to the pKa values of cytochrome bH and Rieske iron sulfur protein. A previously proposed kinetic scheme at the Qi-site where ubiquinone binds to only the reduced enzyme and ubiquinol binds to only the oxidized enzyme is shown to be thermodynamically infeasible. Moreover, the model is able to reproduce the bistability phenomenon where at a given overall flux through the enzyme, different rates of superoxide production are attained when the enzyme is differentially reduced.

Intermonomer electron transfer between the b hemes of heterodimeric cytochrome bc(1)

The ubihydroquinone:cytochrome c oxidoreductase, or cytochrome bc1, is a central component of respiratory and photosynthetic energy transduction pathways in many organisms. It contributes to the generation of membrane potential and proton gradient used for cellular energy (ATP) production. The three-dimensional structures of cytochrome bc1 show a homodimeric organization of its three catalytic subunits. The unusual architecture revived the issue of whether the monomers operate independently or function cooperatively during the catalytic cycle of the enzyme. In recent years, different genetic approaches allowed the successful production of heterodimeric cytochrome bc1 variants and evidenced the occurrence of intermonomer electron transfer between the monomers of this enzyme. Here we used a version of the "two-plasmid" genetic system, also described in the preceding paper (DOI: 10.1021/bi400560p), to study a new heterodimeric mutant variant of cytochrome bc1. The strain producing this heterodimeric variant sustained photosynthetic growth of Rhodobacter capsulatus and yielded an active heterodimer. Interestingly, kinetic data showed equilibration of electrons among the four b heme cofactors of the heterodimer, via "reverse" intermonomer electron transfer between the bL hemes. Both inactive homodimeric and active heterodimeric cytochrome bc1 variants were purified to homogeneity from the same cells, and purified samples were subjected to mass spectrometry analyses. The data unequivocally supported the idea that the cytochrome b subunits carried the expected mutations and their associated epitope tags. Implications of these findings on our interpretation of light-activated transient cytochrome b and c redox kinetics and the mechanism of function of a dimeric cytochrome bc1 are discussed with respect to the previously proposed heterodimeric Q cycle model.

Effect of calcium on the oxidative phosphorylation cascade in skeletal muscle mitochondria

Calcium is believed to regulate mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, thereby contributing to the maintenance of cellular energy homeostasis. Skeletal muscle, with an energy conversion dynamic range of up to 100-fold, is an extreme case for evaluating the cellular balance of ATP production and consumption. This study examined the role of Ca(2+) in the entire oxidative phosphorylation reaction network in isolated skeletal muscle mitochondria and attempted to extrapolate these results back to the muscle, in vivo. Kinetic analysis was conducted to evaluate the dose-response effect of Ca(2+) on the maximal velocity of oxidative phosphorylation (V(maxO)) and the ADP affinity. Force-flow analysis evaluated the interplay between energetic driving forces and flux to determine the conductance, or effective activity, of individual steps within oxidative phosphorylation. Measured driving forces [extramitochondrial phosphorylation potential (ΔG(ATP)), membrane potential, and redox states of NADH and cytochromes b(H), b(L), c(1), c, and a,a(3)] were compared with flux (oxygen consumption) at 37 °C; 840 nM Ca(2+) generated an ~2-fold increase in V(maxO) with no change in ADP affinity (~43 μM). Force-flow analysis revealed that Ca(2+) activation of V(maxO) was distributed throughout the oxidative phosphorylation reaction sequence. Specifically, Ca(2+) increased the conductance of Complex IV (2.3-fold), Complexes I and III (2.2-fold), ATP production/transport (2.4-fold), and fuel transport/dehydrogenases (1.7-fold). These data support the notion that Ca(2+) activates the entire muscle oxidative phosphorylation cascade, while extrapolation of these data to the exercising muscle predicts a significant role of Ca(2+) in maintaining cellular energy homeostasis.

Inhibitors of succinate: quinone reductase/Complex II regulate production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and protect normal cells from ischemic damage but induce specific cancer cell death

Succinate:quinone reductase (SQR) of Complex II occupies a unique central point in the mitochondrial respiratory system as a major source of electrons driving reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. It is an ideal pharmaceutical target for modulating ROS levels in normal cells to prevent oxidative stress-induced damage or alternatively,increase ROS in cancer cells, inducing cell death.The value of drugs like diazoxide to prevent ROS production,protecting normal cells, whereas vitamin E analogues promote ROS in cancer cells to kill them is highlighted. As pharmaceuticals these agents may prevent degenerative disease and their modes of action are presently being fully explored. The evidence that SDH/Complex II is tightly coupled to the NADH/NAD+ ratio in all cells,impacted by the available supplies of Krebs cycle intermediates as essential NAD-linked substrates, and the NAD+-dependent regulation of SDH/Complex II are reviewed, as are links to the NAD+-dependent dehydrogenases, Complex I and the E3 dihiydrolipoamide dehydrogenase to produce ROS. This review collates and discusses diverse sources of information relating to ROS production in different biological systems, focussing on evidence for SQR as the main source of ROS production in mitochondria, particularly its relevance to protection from oxidative stress and to the mitochondrial-targeted anti cancer drugs (mitocans) as novel cancer therapies [corrected].

The Q cycle of cytochrome bc complexes: a structure perspective

Aspects of the crystal structures of the hetero-oligomeric cytochrome bc(1) and b(6)f ("bc") complexes relevant to their electron/proton transfer function and the associated redox reactions of the lipophilic quinones are discussed. Differences between the b(6)f and bc(1) complexes are emphasized. The cytochrome bc(1) and b(6)f dimeric complexes diverge in structure from a core of subunits that coordinate redox groups consisting of two bis-histidine coordinated hemes, a heme b(n) and b(p) on the electrochemically negative (n) and positive (p) sides of the complex, the high potential [2Fe-2S] cluster and c-type heme at the p-side aqueous interface and aqueous phase, respectively, and quinone/quinol binding sites on the n- and p-sides of the complex. The bc(1) and b(6)f complexes diverge in subunit composition and structure away from this core. b(6)f Also contains additional prosthetic groups including a c-type heme c(n) on the n-side, and a chlorophyll a and β-carotene. Common structure aspects; functions of the symmetric dimer. (I) Quinone exchange with the bilayer. An inter-monomer protein-free cavity of approximately 30Å along the membrane normal×25Å (central inter-monomer distance)×15Å (depth in the center), is common to both bc(1) and b(6)f complexes, providing a niche in which the lipophilic quinone/quinol (Q/QH(2)) can be exchanged with the membrane bilayer. (II) Electron transfer. The dimeric structure and the proximity of the two hemes b(p) on the electrochemically positive side of the complex in the two monomer units allow the possibility of two alternate routes of electron transfer across the complex from heme b(p) to b(n): intra-monomer and inter-monomer involving electron cross-over between the two hemes b(p). A structure-based summary of inter-heme distances in seven bc complexes, representing mitochondrial, chromatophore, cyanobacterial, and algal sources, indicates that, based on the distance parameter, the intra-monomer pathway would be favored kinetically. (III) Separation of quinone binding sites. A consequence of the dimer structure and the position of the Q/QH(2) binding sites is that the p-side QH(2) oxidation and n-side Q reduction sites are each well separated. Therefore, in the event of an overlap in residence time by QH(2) or Q molecules at the two oxidation or reduction sites, their spatial separation would result in minimal steric interference between extended Q or QH(2) isoprenoid chains. (IV) Trans-membrane QH(2)/Q transfer. (i) n/p-side QH(2)/Q transfer may be hindered by lipid acyl chains; (ii) the shorter less hindered inter-monomer pathway across the complex would not pass through the center of the cavity, as inferred from the n-side antimycin site on one monomer and the p-side stigmatellin site on the other residing on the same surface of the complex. (V) Narrow p-side portal for QH(2)/Q passage. The [2Fe-2S] cluster that serves as oxidant, and whose histidine ligand serves as a H(+) acceptor in the oxidation of QH(2), is connected to the inter-monomer cavity by a narrow extended portal, which is also occupied in the b(6)f complex by the 20 carbon phytyl chain of the bound chlorophyll.

Bistability of mitochondrial respiration underlies paradoxical reactive oxygen species generation induced by anoxia

Increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mitochondria underlies major systemic diseases, and this clinical problem stimulates a great scientific interest in the mechanism of ROS generation. However, the mechanism of hypoxia-induced change in ROS production is not fully understood. To mathematically analyze this mechanism in details, taking into consideration all the possible redox states formed in the process of electron transport, even for respiratory complex III, a system of hundreds of differential equations must be constructed. Aimed to facilitate such tasks, we developed a new methodology of modeling, which resides in the automated construction of large sets of differential equations. The detailed modeling of electron transport in mitochondria allowed for the identification of two steady state modes of operation (bistability) of respiratory complex III at the same microenvironmental conditions. Various perturbations could induce the transition of respiratory chain from one steady state to another. While normally complex III is in a low ROS producing mode, temporal anoxia could switch it to a high ROS producing state, which persists after the return to normal oxygen supply. This prediction, which we qualitatively validated experimentally, explains the mechanism of anoxia-induced cell damage. Recognition of bistability of complex III operation may enable novel therapeutic strategies for oxidative stress and our method of modeling could be widely used in systems biology studies.

The levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are generated as a side product of mitochondrial respiratory electron transport largely define the extent of oxidative stress in living cells. Free radicals formed in electron transport, such as ubisemiquinone, could pass their non-paired electron directly to oxygen, thus producing superoxide radical that gives rise to a variety of ROS. It is well known in clinical practice that upon recommencing oxygen supply after anoxia a tissue produces much more ROS than before the anoxia, and the state of high ROS production is stable. The mechanism of switching from low to high ROS production by temporal anoxia was unknown, in part because of the lack of detailed mathematical description of hundreds of redox states of respiratory complexes, which are formed in the process of electron transport. A new methodology of automated construction of large systems of differential equations allowed us to describe the system in detail and predicts that the mechanism of paradoxical effect of anoxia-reoxygenation could be defined by the properties of complex III of mitochondrial respiratory chain. Our experiments confirmed that the effect of hypoxia-reoxygenation is confined by intramitochondrial processes since it is observed in isolated mitochondria.

Across membrane communication between the Q(o) and Q(i) active sites of cytochrome bc(1)

The ubihydroquinone:cytochrome c oxidoreductase (cyt bc(1)) contains two catalytically active domains, termed the hydroquinone oxidation (Q(o)) and quinone reduction (Q(i)) sites, which are distant from each other by over 30 A. Previously, we have reported that binding of inhibitors to the Q(i) site on one (n) side of the energy-transducing membrane changes the local environment of the iron-sulfur (Fe/S) protein subunit residing in the Q(o) site on the other (p) side of the lipid bilayer [Cooley, J. W., Ohnishi, T., and Daldal, F. (2005) Biochemistry 44, 10520-10532]. These findings best fit a model whereby the Q(o) and Q(i) sites of the cyt bc(1) are actively coupled in spite of their distant locations. Because the Fe/S protein of the cyt bc(1) undergoes a large-scale (macro) domain movement during catalysis, we examined various macromobility-defective Fe/S subunit mutants to assess the role of this motion on the coupling of the active sites and also during the multiple turnovers of the enzyme. By monitoring the changing environments of the Fe/S protein [2Fe-2S] cluster upon addition of Q(i) site inhibitors in selected mutants, we found that the Q(o)-Q(i) site interactions manifest differently depending on the ability of the Fe/S protein to move between the cytochrome b and cytochrome c(1) subunits of the enzyme. In the presence of antimycin A, an immobile Fe/S protein mutant exhibited no changes in its EPR spectra. In contrast, mobility-restricted mutants showed striking alterations in the EPR line shapes and revealed two discrete subpopulations in respect to the [2Fe-2S] cluster environments at the Q(o) site. These findings led us to conclude that the mobility of the Fe/S protein is involved in its response to the occupancy of the Q(i) site by different molecules. We propose that the heterogeneity seen might reflect the distinct responses of the two Fe/S proteins at the Q(o) sites of the dimeric enzyme upon the occupancy of the Q(i) sites and discuss it in terms of the function of the dimeric cyt bc(1) during its multiple turnovers.

Ilicicolin Inhibition and Binding at Center N of the Dimeric Cytochrome bc1 Complex Reveal Electron Transfer and Regulatory Interactions between Monomers

We have determined the kinetics of ilicicolin binding and dissociation at center N of the yeast bc(1) complex and its effect on the reduction of cytochrome b with center P blocked. The addition of ilicicolin to the oxidized complex resulted in a non-linear inhibition of the extent of cytochrome b reduction by quinol together with a shift of the reduced b(H) heme spectrum, indicating electron transfer between monomers. The possibility of a fast exchange of ilicicolin between center N sites was excluded in two ways. First, kinetic modeling showed that fast movement of an inhibitor between monomers would result in a linear inhibition of the extent of cytochrome b reduction through center N. Second, we determined a very slow dissociation rate for ilicicolin (k = 1.2 x 10(-3) s(-1)) as calculated from its displacement by antimycin. Ilicicolin binding to the reduced bc(1) complex occurred in a single phase (k(on) = 1.5-1.7 x 10(5) m(-1) s(-1)) except in the presence of stigmatellin, where a second slower binding phase comprising approximately 50% of the spectral change was observed. This second kinetic event was weakly dependent on ilicicolin concentration, which suggests that binding of ilicicolin to one center N in the dimer transmits a slow (k = 2-3 s(-1)) conformational change that allows binding of the inhibitor in the other monomer. These results, together with the evidence for intermonomeric electron transfer, provide further support for a dimeric model of regulatory interactions between center P and center N sites in the bc(1) complex.

Regulatory interactions in the dimeric cytochrome bc(1) complex: the advantages of being a twin

The dimeric cytochrome bc(1) complex catalyzes the oxidation-reduction of quinol and quinone at sites located in opposite sides of the membrane in which it resides. We review the kinetics of electron transfer and inhibitor binding that reveal functional interactions between the quinol oxidation site at center P and quinone reduction site at center N in opposite monomers in conjunction with electron equilibration between the cytochrome b subunits of the dimer. A model for the mechanism of the bc(1) complex has emerged from these studies in which binding of ligands that mimic semiquinone at center N regulates half-of-the-sites reactivity at center P and binding of ligands that mimic catalytically competent binding of ubiquinol at center P regulates half-of-the-sites reactivity at center N. An additional feature of this model is that inhibition of quinol oxidation at the quinone reduction site is avoided by allowing catalysis in only one monomer at a time, which maximizes the number of redox acceptor centers available in cytochrome b for electrons coming from quinol oxidation reactions at center P and minimizes the leakage of electrons that would result in the generation of damaging oxygen radicals.

Impact of short- and medium-chain organic acids, acylcarnitines, and acyl-CoAs on mitochondrial energy metabolism

Accumulation of organic acids as well as their CoA and carnitine esters in tissues and body fluids is a common finding in organic acidurias, beta-oxidation defects, Reye syndrome, and Jamaican vomiting sickness. Pathomechanistic approaches for these disorders have been often focused on the effect of accumulating organic acids on mitochondrial energy metabolism, whereas little is known about the pathophysiologic role of short- and medium-chain acyl-CoAs and acylcarnitines. Therefore, we investigated the impact of short- and medium-chain organic acids, acylcarnitines, and acyl-CoAs on central components of mitochondrial energy metabolism, namely alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex, pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, and single enzyme complexes I-V of respiratory chain. Although at varying degree, all acyl-CoAs had an inhibitory effect on pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex activity. Effect sizes were critically dependent on chain length and number of functional groups. Unexpectedly, octanoyl-CoA was shown to inhibit complex III. The inhibition was noncompetitive regarding reduced ubiquinone and uncompetitive regarding cytochrome c. In addition, octanoyl-CoA caused a blue shift in the gamma band of the absorption spectrum of reduced complex III. This effect may play a role in the pathogenesis of medium-chain and multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, Reye syndrome, and Jamaican vomiting sickness which are inherited and acquired conditions of intracellular accumulation of octanoyl-CoA.

The dimeric structure of the cytochrome bc(1) complex prevents center P inhibition by reverse reactions at center N

Energy transduction in the cytochrome bc(1) complex is achieved by catalyzing opposite oxido-reduction reactions at two different quinone binding sites. We have determined the pre-steady state kinetics of cytochrome b and c(1) reduction at varying quinol/quinone ratios in the isolated yeast bc(1) complex to investigate the mechanisms that minimize inhibition of quinol oxidation at center P by reduction of the b(H) heme through center N. The faster rate of initial cytochrome b reduction as well as its lower sensitivity to quinone concentrations with respect to cytochrome c(1) reduction indicated that the b(H) hemes equilibrated with the quinone pool through center N before significant catalysis at center P occurred. The extent of this initial cytochrome b reduction corresponded to a level of b(H) heme reduction of 33%-55% depending on the quinol/quinone ratio. The extent of initial cytochrome c(1) reduction remained constant as long as the fast electron equilibration through center N reduced no more than 50% of the b(H) hemes. Using kinetic modeling, the resilience of center P catalysis to inhibition caused by partial pre-reduction of the b(H) hemes was explained using kinetics in terms of the dimeric structure of the bc(1) complex which allows electrons to equilibrate between monomers.

Differential efficacy of inhibition of mitochondrial and bacterial cytochrome bc1 complexes by center N inhibitors antimycin, ilicicolin H and funiculosin

We have compared the efficacy of inhibition of the cytochrome bc1 complexes from yeast and bovine heart mitochondria and Paracoccus denitrificans by antimycin, ilicicolin H, and funiculosin, three inhibitors that act at the quinone reduction site at center N of the enzyme. Although the three inhibitors have some structural features in common, they differ significantly in their patterns of inhibition. Also, while the overall folding pattern of cytochrome b around center N is similar in the enzymes from the three species, amino acid sequence differences create sufficient structural differences so that there are striking differences in the inhibitors binding to the three enzymes. Antimycin is the most tightly bound of the three inhibitors, and binds stoichiometrically to the isolated enzymes from all three species under the cytochrome c reductase assay conditions. Ilicicolin H also binds stoichiometrically to the yeast enzyme, but binds approximately 2 orders of magnitude less tightly to the bovine enzyme and is essentially non-inhibitory to the Paracoccus enzyme. Funiculosin on the other hand inhibits the yeast and bovine enzymes similarly, with IC50 approximately 10 nM, while the IC50 for the Paracoccus enzyme is more than 10-fold higher. Similar differences in inhibitor efficacy were noted in bc1 complexes from yeast mutants with single amino acid substitutions at the center N site, although the binding affinity of quinone and quinol substrates were not perturbed to a degree that impaired catalytic function in the variant enzymes. These results reveal a high degree of specificity in the determinants of ligand-binding at center N, accompanied by sufficient structural plasticity for substrate binding as to not compromise center N function. The results also demonstrate that, in principle, it should be possible to design novel inhibitors targeted toward center N of the bc1 complex with appropriate species selectivity to allow their use as drugs against pathogenic fungi and parasites.