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Lu H, Hong T, Jiang Y, Whiteway M, Zhang S. Candidiasis: From cutaneous to systemic, new perspectives of potential targets and therapeutic strategies. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 199:114960. [PMID: 37307922 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.114960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Candidiasis is an infection caused by fungi from a Candida species, most commonly Candida albicans. C. albicans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen typically residing on human skin and mucous membranes of the mouth, intestines or vagina. It can cause a wide variety of mucocutaneous barrier and systemic infections; and becomes a severe health problem in HIV/AIDS patients and in individuals who are immunocompromised following chemotherapy, treatment with immunosuppressive agents or after antibiotic-induced dysbiosis. However, the immune mechanism of host resistance to C. albicans infection is not fully understood, there are a limited number of therapeutic antifungal drugs for candidiasis, and these have disadvantages that limit their clinical application. Therefore, it is urgent to uncover the immune mechanisms of the host protecting against candidiasis and to develop new antifungal strategies. This review synthesizes current knowledge of host immune defense mechanisms from cutaneous candidiasis to invasive C. albicans infection and documents promising insights for treating candidiasis through inhibitors of potential antifungal target proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Lu
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ting Hong
- Department of Anesthesiology, Huadong Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuanying Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Malcolm Whiteway
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
| | - Shiqun Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
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Havens J, Su T, Wang Q, Yu CA, Yu L, Durham B, Millett F. Photoinduced electron transfer in cytochrome bc 1: Dynamics of rotation of the Iron-sulfur protein during bifurcated electron transfer from ubiquinol to cytochrome c 1 and cytochrome b L. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOENERGETICS 2023; 1864:148957. [PMID: 36709837 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2023.148957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The electron transfer reactions within wild-type Rhodobacter sphaeroides cytochrome bc1 (cyt bc1) were studied using a binuclear ruthenium complex to rapidly photooxidize cyt c1. When cyt c1, the iron‑sulfur center Fe2S2, and cyt bH were reduced before the reaction, photooxidation of cyt c1 led to electron transfer from Fe2S2 to cyt c1 with a rate constant of ka = 80,000 s-1, followed by bifurcated reduction of both Fe2S2 and cyt bL by QH2 in the Qo site with a rate constant of k2 = 3000 s-1. The resulting Q then traveled from the Qo site to the Qi site and oxidized one equivalent each of cyt bL and cyt bH with a rate constant of k3 = 340 s-1. The rate constant ka was decreased in a nonlinear fashion by a factor of 53 as the viscosity was increased to 13.7. A mechanism that is consistent with the effect of viscosity involves rotational diffusion of the iron‑sulfur protein from the b state with reduced Fe2S2 close to cyt bL to one or more intermediate states, followed by rotation to the final c1 state with Fe2S2 close to cyt c1, and rapid electron transfer to cyt c1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Havens
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, United States of America; Vaccines and Therapeutics Division, Chemical and Biological Technologies, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, VA 22060, United States of America
| | - Ting Su
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, United States of America; ABclonal Technology Woburn, MA 01801, United States of America
| | - Qiyu Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, United States of America; Vesigen Therapeutics Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - Chang-An Yu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, United States of America
| | - Linda Yu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, United States of America
| | - Bill Durham
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, United States of America
| | - Francis Millett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, United States of America.
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The Future of Antifungal Drug Therapy: Novel Compounds and Targets. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:AAC.01719-20. [PMID: 33229427 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01719-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal infections are a universal problem and are routinely associated with high morbidity and mortality rates in immunocompromised patients. Existing therapies comprise five different classes of antifungal agents, four of which target the synthesis of ergosterol and cell wall glucans. However, the currently available antifungals have many limitations, including poor oral bioavailability, narrow therapeutic indices, and emerging drug resistance resulting from their use, thus making it essential to investigate the development of novel drugs which can overcome these limitations and add to the antifungal armamentarium. Advances have been made in antifungal drug discovery research and development over the past few years as evidenced by the presence of several new compounds currently in various stages of development. In the following minireview, we provide a comprehensive summary of compounds aimed at one or more novel molecular targets. We also briefly describe potential pathways relevant for fungal pathogenesis that can be considered for drug development in the near future.
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Antifungal Resistance, Metabolic Routes as Drug Targets, and New Antifungal Agents: An Overview about Endemic Dimorphic Fungi. Mediators Inflamm 2017; 2017:9870679. [PMID: 28694566 PMCID: PMC5485324 DOI: 10.1155/2017/9870679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Diseases caused by fungi can occur in healthy people, but immunocompromised patients are the major risk group for invasive fungal infections. Cases of fungal resistance and the difficulty of treatment make fungal infections a public health problem. This review explores mechanisms used by fungi to promote fungal resistance, such as the mutation or overexpression of drug targets, efflux and degradation systems, and pleiotropic drug responses. Alternative novel drug targets have been investigated; these include metabolic routes used by fungi during infection, such as trehalose and amino acid metabolism and mitochondrial proteins. An overview of new antifungal agents, including nanostructured antifungals, as well as of repositioning approaches is discussed. Studies focusing on the development of vaccines against antifungal diseases have increased in recent years, as these strategies can be applied in combination with antifungal therapy to prevent posttreatment sequelae. Studies focused on the development of a pan-fungal vaccine and antifungal drugs can improve the treatment of immunocompromised patients and reduce treatment costs.
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Abstract
Mitochondria are essential for cell growth and survival of most fungal pathogens. Energy (ATP) produced during oxidation/reduction reactions of the electron transport chain (ETC) Complexes I, III and IV (CI, CIII, CIV) fuel cell synthesis. The mitochondria of fungal pathogens are understudied even though more recent published data suggest critical functional assignments to fungal-specific proteins. Proteins of mammalian mitochondria are grouped into 16 functional categories. In this review, we focus upon 11 proteins from 5 of these categories in fungal pathogens, OXPHOS, protein import, stress response, carbon source metabolism, and fission/fusion morphology. As these proteins also are fungal-specific, we hypothesize that they may be exploited as targets in antifungal drug discovery. We also discuss published transcriptional profiling data of mitochondrial CI subunit protein mutants, in which we advance a novel concept those CI subunit proteins have both shared as well as specific responsibilities for providing ATP to cell processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongmei Li
- a Department of Microbiology & Immunology , Georgetown University Medical Center , Washington , DC , USA
| | - Richard Calderone
- a Department of Microbiology & Immunology , Georgetown University Medical Center , Washington , DC , USA
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Li H, Zhu XL, Yang WC, Yang GF. Comparative Kinetics ofQiSite Inhibitors of Cytochromebc1Complex: Picomolar Antimycin and Micromolar Cyazofamid. Chem Biol Drug Des 2013; 83:71-80. [DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.12199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Li
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology; College of Chemistry; Ministry of Education; Central China Normal University; Wuhan 430079 China
| | - Xiao-Lei Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology; College of Chemistry; Ministry of Education; Central China Normal University; Wuhan 430079 China
| | - Wen-Chao Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology; College of Chemistry; Ministry of Education; Central China Normal University; Wuhan 430079 China
| | - Guang-Fu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology; College of Chemistry; Ministry of Education; Central China Normal University; Wuhan 430079 China
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Singh SB, Liu W, Li X, Chen T, Shafiee A, Dreikorn S, Hornak V, Meinz M, Onishi JC. Structure-activity relationship of cytochrome bc1 reductase inhibitor broad spectrum antifungal ilicicolin H. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:3018-22. [PMID: 23562597 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Ilicicolin H is a broad spectrum antifungal agent showing sub micro g/mL MICs against Candida spp., Aspergillus fumigatus and Cryptococcus spp. It is a potent inhibitor (C50 2-3ng/mL) of the mitochondrial cytochrome bc1 reductase with over 1000-fold selectivity against rat liver cytochrome bc1 reductase. Structure-activity relationship of semisynthetic derivatives by chemical modification of ilicicolin H and its 19-hydroxy derivative produced by biotransformation have been described. Basic 4'-esters and moderately polar N- and O-alkyl derivatives retained antifungal and the cytochrome bc1 reductase activities. 4',19-Diacetate and 19-cyclopropyl acetate retained antifungal and enzyme activity and selectivity with over 20-fold improvement of plasma protein binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheo B Singh
- Departments of Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, PO Box 2000, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA.
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Singh SB, Liu W, Li X, Chen T, Shafiee A, Card D, Abruzzo G, Flattery A, Gill C, Thompson JR, Rosenbach M, Dreikorn S, Hornak V, Meinz M, Kurtz M, Kelly R, Onishi JC. Antifungal spectrum, in vivo efficacy, and structure-activity relationship of ilicicolin h. ACS Med Chem Lett 2012; 3:814-7. [PMID: 24900384 DOI: 10.1021/ml300173e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Accepted: 08/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Ilicicolin H is a polyketide-nonribosomal peptide synthase (NRPS)-natural product isolated from Gliocadium roseum, which exhibits potent and broad spectrum antifungal activity, with sub-μg/mL MICs against Candida spp., Aspergillus fumigatus, and Cryptococcus spp. It showed a novel mode of action, potent inhibition (IC50 = 2-3 ng/mL) of the mitochondrial cytochrome bc1 reductase, and over 1000-fold selectivity relative to rat liver cytochrome bc1 reductase. Ilicicolin H exhibited in vivo efficacy in murine models of Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans infections, but efficacy may have been limited by high plasma protein binding. Systematic structural modification of ilicicolin H was undertaken to understand the structural requirement for the antifungal activity. The details of the biological activity of ilicicolin H and structural modification of some of the key parts of the molecule and resulting activity of the derivatives are discussed. These data suggest that the β-keto group is critical for the antifungal activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheo B. Singh
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Weiguo Liu
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Xiaohua Li
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Tom Chen
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Ali Shafiee
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Deborah Card
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - George Abruzzo
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Amy Flattery
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Charles Gill
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - John R. Thompson
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Mark Rosenbach
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Sarah Dreikorn
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Viktor Hornak
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Maria Meinz
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Myra Kurtz
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Rosemarie Kelly
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
| | - Janet C. Onishi
- Departments
Medicinal Chemistry and Infectious Diseases, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey 07065,
United States
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Castellani M, Covian R, Kleinschroth T, Anderka O, Ludwig B, Trumpower BL. Direct demonstration of half-of-the-sites reactivity in the dimeric cytochrome bc1 complex: enzyme with one inactive monomer is fully active but unable to activate the second ubiquinol oxidation site in response to ligand binding at the ubiquinone reduction site. J Biol Chem 2009; 285:502-10. [PMID: 19892700 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.072959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously proposed that the dimeric cytochrome bc(1) complex exhibits half-of-the-sites reactivity for ubiquinol oxidation and rapid electron transfer between bc(1) monomers (Covian, R., Kleinschroth, T., Ludwig, B., and Trumpower, B. L. (2007) J. Biol. Chem. 282, 22289-22297). Here, we demonstrate the previously proposed half-of-the-sites reactivity and intermonomeric electron transfer by characterizing the kinetics of ubiquinol oxidation in the dimeric bc(1) complex from Paracoccus denitrificans that contains an inactivating Y147S mutation in one or both cytochrome b subunits. The enzyme with a Y147S mutation in one cytochrome b subunit was catalytically fully active, whereas the activity of the enzyme with a Y147S mutation in both cytochrome b subunits was only 10-16% of that of the enzyme with fully wild-type or heterodimeric cytochrome b subunits. Enzyme with one inactive cytochrome b subunit was also indistinguishable from the dimer with two wild-type cytochrome b subunits in rate and extent of reduction of cytochromes b and c(1) by ubiquinol under pre-steady-state conditions in the presence of antimycin. However, the enzyme with only one mutated cytochrome b subunit did not show the stimulation in the steady-state rate that was observed in the wild-type dimeric enzyme at low concentrations of antimycin, confirming that the half-of-the-sites reactivity for ubiquinol oxidation can be regulated in the wild-type dimer by binding of inhibitor to one ubiquinone reduction site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Castellani
- Institute of Biochemistry, Molecular Genetics, Goethe University and Cluster of Excellence Macromolecular Complexes Frankfurt am Main, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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