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Mendez MF. Can Speaking More Than One Language Help Prevent Alzheimer's Disease? J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 95:363-377. [PMID: 37545240 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurocognitive disorder that is epidemic in the elderly population. Currently, there are limited pharmacological interventions, and this has heightened the urgency to identify potential preventable or modifiable risk factors that promote resilience to the neuropathological effects of AD. The regular use of two or more languages is one such factor that may increases cognitive reserve through the long-standing executive control involved in managing multiple languages in the brain. There is also evidence that bilingualism is associated with increased brain reserve or maintenance, particularly in frontal-executive structures and networks. This review examines the current, sometimes conflicting literature on bi/multilingualism and AD. These studies have confounding variations in the assessment of age of second language onset, language proficiency, language usage, and whether determining incidence of AD or age of symptom onset. Despite these limitations, most publications support the presence of increased frontal-executive reserve that compensates for the development of AD neuropathology and, thereby, delays the emergence of clinical symptoms of dementia by about 4-5 years. Although regularly speaking more than one language does not protect against AD neuropathology, the delay in its clinical expression has a potentially significant impact on the lifelong morbidity from this age-related disease. Learning other languages may be an important modifiable factor for delaying the clinical expression of AD in later life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario F Mendez
- Departments of Neurology and Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, and Neurology Service, Neurobehavior Unit, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Kim J, Kim MS. An Overview of Cognitive Reserve in Aging Based on Keyword Network Analysis. INQUIRY: THE JOURNAL OF HEALTH CARE ORGANIZATION, PROVISION, AND FINANCING 2022; 59:469580221139374. [DOI: 10.1177/00469580221139374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Many studies have reported that Cognitive reserve is a critical mechanism affecting cognitive statuses, such as dementia. The purposes of this study were to identify the knowledge structure and the research trend on cognitive reserve by conducting keyword analysis on research papers ranging from the earliest to the most recent studies done on the topic and to suggest directions for future research. The Web of Science (WOS) database was used to search for articles on cognitive reserve in aging from 2001 to 2020. NetMiner version 4 (cyram, KOREA), a social network analysis program, was used for keyword network analysis. Data analysis showed keywords that could be categorized as cognitive reserve related keywords (cognitive reserve related concepts, cognitive reserve related factor, cognitive reserve diagnosis and measurement, cognitive reserve outcomes) and cognitive reserve research keywords (research subject/disease, research method, intervention, research field). Through trend analysis, we found that various keywords appeared, indicating that the research has gradually developed conceptually and methodically. Based on these findings, future CR studies require the development of multimodal interface-based tools by applying modern digital technology that can be used to more accurately diagnose and monitor CR; remotely, in real time. In addition, to improve CR, it is suggested that the development of cognitive stimulation interventions utilizing VR which fuses AI based interaction technology with the subjects. Finally, CR could develop further through a cooperation of multidisciplinary professionals such as psychology, medicine and nursing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihyun Kim
- Sahmyook University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi So Kim
- Shinhan University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
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Jafari Z, Perani D, Kolb BE, Mohajerani MH. Bilingual experience and intrinsic functional connectivity in adults, aging, and Alzheimer's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2021; 1505:8-22. [PMID: 34309857 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The past decade marked the beginning of the use of resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) imaging in bilingualism studies. This paper intends to review the latest evidence of changes in RSFC in language and cognitive control networks in bilinguals during adulthood, aging, and early Alzheimer's disease, which can add to our understanding of brain functional reshaping in the context of second language (L2) acquisition. Because of high variability in bilingual experience, recent studies mostly focus on the role of the main aspects of bilingual experience (age of acquisition (AoA), language proficiency, and language usage) on intrinsic functional connectivity (FC). Existing evidence accounts for stronger FC in simultaneous rather than sequential bilinguals in language and control networks, and the modulation of the AoA impact by language proficiency and usage. Studies on older bilingual adults show stronger FC in language and frontoparietal networks and preserved FC in posterior brain regions, which can protect the brain against cognitive decline and neurodegenerative processes. Altered RSFC in language and control networks subsequent to L2 training programs also is associated with improved global cognition in older adults. This review ends with a brief discussion of potential confounding factors in bilingualism research and conclusions and suggestions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Jafari
- Department of Neuroscience, Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Daniela Perani
- Faculty of Psychology, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy.,Nuclear Medicine Unit, San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Bryan E Kolb
- Department of Neuroscience, Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Majid H Mohajerani
- Department of Neuroscience, Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
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Rieker JA, Reales JM, Ballesteros S. The Effect of Bilingualism on Cue-Based vs. Memory-Based Task Switching in Older Adults. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 14:610548. [PMID: 33390921 PMCID: PMC7775305 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.610548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Findings suggest a positive impact of bilingualism on cognition, including the later onset of dementia. However, it is not clear to what extent these effects are influenced by variations in attentional control demands in response to specific task requirements. In this study, 20 bilingual and 20 monolingual older adults performed a task-switching task under explicit task-cuing vs. memory-based switching conditions. In the cued condition, task switches occurred in random order and a visual cue signaled the next task to be performed. In the memory-based condition, the task alternated after every second trial in a predictable sequence without presenting a cue. The performance of bilinguals did not vary across experimental conditions, whereas monolinguals experienced a pronounced increase in response latencies and error rates in the cued condition. Both groups produced similar switch costs (difference in performance on switch trials as opposed to repeating trials within the mixed-task block) and mixing costs (difference in performance on repeat trials of a mixed-task block as opposed to trials of a single-task block), but bilinguals produced them with lower response latencies. The cognitive benefits of bilingualism seem not to apply to executive functions per se but to affect specific cognitive processes that involve task-relevant context processing. The present results suggest that lifelong bilingualism could promote in older adults a flexible adjustment to environmental cues, but only with increased task demands. However, due to the small sample size, the results should be interpreted with caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Rieker
- Studies on Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Basic Psychology II, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Manuel Reales
- Studies on Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Madrid, Spain.,Department Methodology of Behavioral Sciences, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - Soledad Ballesteros
- Studies on Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Basic Psychology II, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional, Madrid, Spain
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Mendez MF. Bilingualism and Dementia: Cognitive Reserve to Linguistic Competency. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 71:377-388. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-190397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mario F. Mendez
- V.A. Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Departments of Neurology and Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Mendez MF, Chavez D, Akhlaghipour G. Bilingualism Delays Expression of Alzheimer's Clinical Syndrome. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2019; 48:281-289. [PMID: 32045913 PMCID: PMC7195235 DOI: 10.1159/000505872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effects of bilingualism on the emergence of Alzheimer's clinical syndrome. BACKGROUND Studies have proposed an increase in cognitive and neural reserve from the management and control of two languages, with a consequent delayed expression of dementia. METHODS In a clinic with a large immigrant population, we identified 253 patients with probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) with intermediate or high evidence of AD pathophysiological process. These patients were reviewed for demographic variables, native language (L1) other than English, ages of onset and presentation, Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), digit spans, word fluencies, naming, and memory. RESULTS Among these patients, 74 (29.2%) were bilinguals with various L1s (Farsi, Spanish, Chinese, Tagalog, Arabic, others). When compared to the 179 monolingual AD patients, those who were bilingual had significant delays in ages of onset and presentation of approximately 4 years (p = 0.003). These delays persisted despite bilinguals having worse MMSE scores on presentation. There were no significant group differences on other variables except for worse naming in English among bilinguals versus monolinguals. Caregiver/informants reported that 66 (89.2%) of the 74 bilingual AD patients had gradually regressed to the predominant use of their L1. CONCLUSIONS In line with published reports worldwide, we found that bilingualism delays the expression of Alzheimer's clinical syndrome. We also found frequent reversion to the first learned language. These findings suggest that, among bilinguals, the availability of an L1 "back-up" either facilitates compensation or masks emergence of the early symptoms of dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario F. Mendez
- V.A. Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA,Departments of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, CA, USA,Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, and Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Diana Chavez
- Departments of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Golnoush Akhlaghipour
- Departments of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Reyes A, Paul BM, Marshall A, Chang YHA, Bahrami N, Kansal L, Iragui VJ, Tecoma ES, Gollan TH, McDonald CR. Does bilingualism increase brain or cognitive reserve in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy? Epilepsia 2018; 59:1037-1047. [PMID: 29658987 DOI: 10.1111/epi.14072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Bilingual healthy adults have been shown to exhibit an advantage in executive functioning (EF) that is associated with microstructural changes in white matter (WM) networks. Patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) often show EF deficits that are associated with WM compromise. In this study, we investigate whether bilingualism can increase cognitive reserve and/or brain reserve in bilingual patients with TLE, mitigating EF impairment and WM compromise. METHODS Diffusion tensor imaging was obtained in 19 bilingual and 26 monolingual patients with TLE, 12 bilingual healthy controls (HC), and 21 monolingual HC. Fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) were calculated for the uncinate fasciculus (Unc) and cingulum (Cing), superior frontostriatal tract (SFS), and inferior frontostriatal tract (IFS). Measures of EF included Trail Making Test-B (TMT-B) and Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System Color-Word Inhibition/Switching. Analyses of covariance were conducted to compare FA and MD of the Unc, Cing, SFS, and IFS and EF performance across groups. RESULTS In bilingual patients, FA was lower in the ipsilateral Cing and Unc compared to all other groups. For both patient groups, MD of the ipsilateral Unc was higher relative to HC. Despite more pronounced reductions in WM integrity, bilingual patients performed similarly to monolingual TLE and both HC groups on EF measures. By contrast, monolingual patients performed worse than HC on TMT-B. In addition, differences in group means between bilingual and monolingual patients on TMT-B approached significance when controlling for the extent of WM damage (P = .071; d = 0.62), suggesting a tendency toward higher performance for bilingual patients. SIGNIFICANCE Despite poorer integrity of regional frontal lobe WM, bilingual patients performed similarly to monolingual patients and HC on EF measures. These findings align with studies suggesting that bilingualism may provide a protective factor for individuals with neurological disease, potentially through reorganization of EF networks that promote greater cognitive reserve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anny Reyes
- San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, CA, USA.,Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Brianna M Paul
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,University of California, San Francisco Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Anisa Marshall
- Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Yu-Hsuan A Chang
- Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Naeim Bahrami
- Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Leena Kansal
- University of California, San Diego Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Vicente J Iragui
- University of California, San Diego Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Evelyn S Tecoma
- University of California, San Diego Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Tamar H Gollan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Carrie R McDonald
- San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, CA, USA.,Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
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