1
|
Kim Y, Lama S, Agrawal D, Kumar V, Park S. Acetate as a potential feedstock for the production of value-added chemicals: Metabolism and applications. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 49:107736. [PMID: 33781888 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Acetate is regarded as a promising carbon feedstock in biological production owing to its possible derivation from C1 gases such as CO, CO2 and methane. To best use of acetate, comprehensive understanding of acetate metabolisms from genes and enzymes to pathways and regulations is needed. This review aims to provide an overview on the potential of acetate as carbon feedstock for industrial biotechnology. Biochemical, microbial and biotechnological aspects of acetate metabolism are described. Especially, the current state-of-the art in the production of value-added chemicals from acetate is summarized. Challenges and future perspectives are also provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yeonhee Kim
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, UNIST, 50, UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Suman Lama
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, UNIST, 50, UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Deepti Agrawal
- Biochemistry and Biotechnology Area, Material Resource Efficiency Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Petroleum, Mohkampur, Dehradun 248005, India
| | - Vinod Kumar
- Centre for Climate and Environmental Protection, School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield, MK430AL, United Kingdom.
| | - Sunghoon Park
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, UNIST, 50, UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yoshida Y, Sato M, Nonaka T, Hasegawa Y, Kezuka Y. Characterization of the phosphotransacetylase-acetate kinase pathway for ATP production in Porphyromonas gingivalis. J Oral Microbiol 2019; 11:1588086. [PMID: 31007866 PMCID: PMC6461089 DOI: 10.1080/20002297.2019.1588086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetyl phosphate (AcP) is generally produced from acetyl coenzyme A by phosphotransacetylase (Pta), and subsequent reaction with ADP, catalyzed by acetate kinase (Ack), produces ATP. The mechanism of ATP production in Porphyromonas gingivalis is poorly understood. The aim of this study was to explore the molecular basis of the Pta-Ack pathway in this microorganism. Pta and Ack from P. gingivalis ATCC 33277 were enzymatically and structurally characterized. Structural and mutational analyses suggest that Pta is a dimer with two substrate-binding sites in each subunit. Ack is also dimeric, with a catalytic cleft in each subunit, and structural analysis indicates a dramatic domain motion that opens and closes the cleft during catalysis. ATP formation by Ack proceeds via a sequential mechanism. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis demonstrated that the pta (PGN_1179) and ack (PGN_1178) genes, tandemly located in the genome, are cotranscribed as an operon. Inactivation of pta or ack in P. gingivalis by homologous recombination was successful only when the inactivated gene was expressed in trans. Therefore, both pta and ack genes are essential for this microorganism. Insights into the Pta-Ack pathway reported herein would be helpful to understand the energy acquisition in P. gingivalis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yasuo Yoshida
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dentistry, Aichi Gakuin University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Mitsunari Sato
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dentistry, Aichi Gakuin University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Takamasa Nonaka
- Division of Structural Biology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Hasegawa
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dentistry, Aichi Gakuin University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yuichiro Kezuka
- Division of Structural Biology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jiang Y, Tao R, Shen Z, Sun L, Zhu F, Yang S. Enzymatic Production of Glutathione by Bifunctional γ-Glutamylcysteine Synthetase/Glutathione Synthetase Coupled with In Vitro Acetate Kinase-Based ATP Generation. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2016; 180:1446-1455. [PMID: 27380420 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-016-2178-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione (γ-glutamyl-L-cysteinylglycine, GSH) is a pharmaceutical compound often used in food additives and the cosmetics industry. GSH can be produced biologically from L-glutamic acid, L-cysteine, and glycine through an enzymatic process traditionally involving two sequential adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-dependent reactions catalyzed by γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS or GSHI, EC 6.3.2.2) and GSH synthetase (GS or GSHII, EC 6.3.2.3). Here, we report the enzymatic production of GSH by recombinant cell-free bifunctional γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase/glutathione synthetase (γ-GCS-GS or GshF) coupled with in vitro acetate kinase-based ATP generation. GSH production by an acetate kinase-integrated Escherichia coli Rosetta(DE3) mutant expressing Streptococcus thermophilus GshF reached 18.3 ± 0.1 g l-1 (59.5 ± 0.3 mM) within 3 h, with a molar yield of 0.75 ± 0.00 mol mol-1 added cysteine and a productivity of 6.1 ± 0.0 g l-1 h-1. This is the highest GSH titer reported to date. This newly developed biocatalytic process offers a promising approach for meeting the industrial requirements for GSH production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China.,Shanghai Research and Development Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Shanghai, 201201, China
| | - Rongsheng Tao
- Huzhou Research Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Zhengquan Shen
- Huzhou Research Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Liangdong Sun
- Huzhou Research Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Fuyun Zhu
- Huzhou Research Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Sheng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China. .,Shanghai Research and Development Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Shanghai, 201201, China. .,Huzhou Research Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Huzhou, 313000, China. .,Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials (SICAM), Nanjing, 200237, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rozova ON, Khmelenina VN, Gavletdinova JZ, Mustakhimov II, Trotsenko YA. Acetate kinase-an enzyme of the postulated phosphoketolase pathway in Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum 20Z. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 2015; 108:965-74. [PMID: 26275877 DOI: 10.1007/s10482-015-0549-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Recombinant acetate kinase (AcK) was obtained from the aerobic haloalkalitolerant methanotroph Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum 20Z by heterologous expression in Escherichia coli and purification by affinity chromatography. The substrate specificity, the kinetics and oligomeric state of the His6-tagged AcK were determined. The M. alcaliphilum AcK (2 × 45 kDa) catalyzed the reversible phosphorylation of acetate into acetyl phosphate and exhibited a dependence on Mg(2+) or Mn(2+) ions and strong specificity to ATP/ADP. The enzyme showed the maximal activity and high stability at 70 °C. AcK was 20-fold more active in the reaction of acetate synthesis compared to acetate phosphorylation and had a higher affinity to acetyl phosphate (K m 0.11 mM) than to acetate (K m 5.6 mM). The k cat /K m ratios indicated that the enzyme had a remarkably high catalytic efficiency for acetate and ATP formation (k cat/K m = 1.7 × 10(6)) compared to acetate phosphorylation (k cat/K m = 2.5 × 10(3)). The ack gene of M. alcaliphilum 20Z was shown to be co-transcribed with the xfp gene encoding putative phosphoketolase. The Blast analysis revealed the ack and xfp genes in most genomes of the sequenced aerobic methanotrophs, as well as methylotrophic bacteria not growing on methane. The distribution and metabolic role of the postulated phosphoketolase shunted glycolytic pathway in aerobic C1-utilizing bacteria is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olga N Rozova
- Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospect Nauki 5, Pushchino, 142290, Russia,
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Picozzi C, Meissner D, Chierici M, Ehrmann MA, Vigentini I, Foschino R, Vogel RF. Phage-mediated transfer of a dextranase gene in Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis and characterization of the enzyme. Int J Food Microbiol 2015; 202:48-53. [PMID: 25771219 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
While phages of lactobacilli are extensively studied with respect to their structure and role in the dairy environment, knowledge about phages in bacteria residing in sourdough fermentation is limited. Based on the previous finding that the Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis phage EV3 carries a putative dextranase gene (dex), we have investigated the distribution of similar dex(+) phages in L. sanfranciscensis, the chance of gene transfer and the properties of the dextranase encoded by phage EV3. L. sanfranciscensis H2A (dex(-)), originally isolated from a wheat sourdough, expressed a Dex(+) phenotype upon infection with EV3. The dextranase gene was isolated from the transductant and heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. The gene encoded a protein of 801 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight (Mw) of 89.09 kDa and a calculated pI of 5.62. Upon purification aided by a 6-His tag, enzyme kinetic parameters were determined. The Km value was 370 mM, and the Vmax was calculated in about 16 μmol of glucose released from dextran by 1 mg of enzyme in 1 min in a buffer solution at pH 5.0. The optimum conditions were 60 °C and pH 4.5. The enzyme retained its activity for >3h at 60 °C and exhibited only 40% activity at 30 °C; the highest homology of 72% was found to a dextranase gene from Lactobacillus fermentum phage φPYB5. Within 25 L. sanfransiscensis isolates tested, the strain 4B5 carried a similar prophage encoding a dextranase gene. Our data suggest a phage-mediated transfer of dextranase genes in the sourdough environment resulting in superinfection-resistant L. sanfranciscensis Dex(+) strains with a possible ecological advantage in dextran-containing sourdoughs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Picozzi
- Dipartimento di Scienze per gli Alimenti, la Nutrizione, l'Ambiente (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Daniel Meissner
- Lehrstuhl für Technische Mikrobiologie, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | - Margherita Chierici
- Dipartimento di Scienze per gli Alimenti, la Nutrizione, l'Ambiente (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Matthias A Ehrmann
- Lehrstuhl für Technische Mikrobiologie, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | - Ileana Vigentini
- Dipartimento di Scienze per gli Alimenti, la Nutrizione, l'Ambiente (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Roberto Foschino
- Dipartimento di Scienze per gli Alimenti, la Nutrizione, l'Ambiente (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Rudi F Vogel
- Lehrstuhl für Technische Mikrobiologie, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Yoshioka A, Murata K, Kawai S. Structural and mutational analysis of amino acid residues involved in ATP specificity of Escherichia coli acetate kinase. J Biosci Bioeng 2014; 118:502-7. [PMID: 24856051 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2014.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Revised: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Acetate kinase (AK) generally utilizes ATP as a phosphoryl donor, but AK from Entamoeba histolytica (PPi-ehiAK) uses pyrophosphate (PPi), not ATP, and is PPi-specific. The determinants of the phosphoryl donor specificity are unknown. Here, we inferred 5 candidate amino acid residues associated with this specificity, based on structural information. Each candidate residue in Escherichia coli ATP-specific AK (ATP-ecoAK), which is unable to use PPi, was substituted with the respective PPi-ehiAK amino acid residue. Each variant ATP-ecoAK had an increased Km for ATP, indicating that the 5 residues are the determinants for the specificity to ATP in ATP-ecoAK. Moreover, Asn-337 of ATP-ecoAK was shown to be particularly significant for the specificity to ATP. The 5 residues are highly conserved in 2625 PPi-ehiAK homologs, implying that almost all organisms have ATP-dependent, rather than PPi-dependent, AK.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aya Yoshioka
- Laboratory of Basic and Applied Molecular Biotechnology, Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Kousaku Murata
- Laboratory of Basic and Applied Molecular Biotechnology, Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Shigeyuki Kawai
- Laboratory of Basic and Applied Molecular Biotechnology, Division of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Chan SHJ, Nørregaard L, Solem C, Jensen PR. Acetate kinase isozymes confer robustness in acetate metabolism. PLoS One 2014; 9:e92256. [PMID: 24638105 PMCID: PMC3956926 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetate kinase (ACK) (EC no: 2.7.2.1) interconverts acetyl-phosphate and acetate to either catabolize or synthesize acetyl-CoA dependent on the metabolic requirement. Among all ACK entries available in UniProt, we found that around 45% are multiple ACKs in some organisms including more than 300 species but surprisingly, little work has been done to clarify whether this has any significance. In an attempt to gain further insight we have studied the two ACKs (AckA1, AckA2) encoded by two neighboring genes conserved in Lactococcus lactis (L. lactis) by analyzing protein sequences, characterizing transcription structure, determining enzyme characteristics and effect on growth physiology. The results show that the two ACKs are most likely individually transcribed. AckA1 has a much higher turnover number and AckA2 has a much higher affinity for acetate in vitro. Consistently, growth experiments of mutant strains reveal that AckA1 has a higher capacity for acetate production which allows faster growth in an environment with high acetate concentration. Meanwhile, AckA2 is important for fast acetate-dependent growth at low concentration of acetate. The results demonstrate that the two ACKs have complementary physiological roles in L. lactis to maintain a robust acetate metabolism for fast growth at different extracellular acetate concentrations. The existence of ACK isozymes may reflect a common evolutionary strategy in bacteria in an environment with varying concentrations of acetate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Lasse Nørregaard
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Christian Solem
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
- * E-mail: (CS); (PRJ)
| | - Peter Ruhdal Jensen
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
- * E-mail: (CS); (PRJ)
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ren NQ, Lin HL, Zhang K, Zheng GX, Duan ZJ, Lin M. Cloning, expression, and characterization of an acetate kinase from a high rate of biohydrogen bacterial strain Ethanoligenens sp. hit B49. Curr Microbiol 2007; 55:167-72. [PMID: 17619101 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-007-0172-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2007] [Accepted: 03/28/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The acetate kinase (ack) gene from Ethanoligenens sp. hit B49, isolated from a biohydrogen production bioreactor, is a key enzyme and responsible for dephosphorylation of acetyl phosphate with the concomitant production of acetate and ATP; it was cloned, sequenced, and functionally expressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). It contained a 1200-bp open reading frame and encoded a 399-amino-acid protein kinase (molecular weight, 43.22 kDa; isoionic point, pH 5.93) sharing 58% similarity with Thermotoga maritima MSB8 ack. Ack was heterologously expressed in E.coli BL21 (DE3). Ack specific activities of the refolded ack inclusion body from Ethanoligenens sp. hit B49 is 42.12 U at 25 degrees C, and the renaturation percent is 14.36%.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nan-qi Ren
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090 People's Republic of China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Gänzle MG, Vermeulen N, Vogel RF. Carbohydrate, peptide and lipid metabolism of lactic acid bacteria in sourdough. Food Microbiol 2006; 24:128-38. [PMID: 17008155 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2006.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The metabolic pathways of lactic acid bacteria that influence bread quality are coupled to the central carbon flux by the availability of cofactors influencing the cellular and environmental redox potential. Homo- and heterofermentative metabolism differ fundamentally with respect to the requirement for regeneration of reduced cofactors, NADH or NADPH. The utilization of co-substrates such as oxygen or fructose as electron acceptors by obligate heterofermentative lactobacilli is coupled to an increased production of acetate in dough. Recently, several oxidoreductases involved in cofactor regeneration were characterized and glutathione and short-chain aldehydes derived from lipid oxidation were identified as substrates for cofactor regeneration by Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis. Based on the different metabolic requirements for cofactor regeneration, homo- and heterofermentative lactobacilli exert divergent effects on redox-reactions in sourdough that influence bread quality beyond the formation of acetate. Proteolysis, followed by peptide or amino acid metabolism by LAB is one of the key routes of flavour formation in bread flavour, and enables the strain-specific formation of antifungal metabolites. Peptide metabolism as well as the metabolism of cysteine, arginine, and phenylalanine in Lactobacillus plantarum, L. sanfranciscensis, and Lactobacillus pontis is increasingly understood and these insights provide new opportunities for the directed application of sourdough LAB for improved bread quality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael G Gänzle
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, 4-10 Ag/For Centre, Edmonton, Alta., Canada T6G 2P5.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
To succeed, many cells must alternate between life-styles that permit rapid growth in the presence of abundant nutrients and ones that enhance survival in the absence of those nutrients. One such change in life-style, the "acetate switch," occurs as cells deplete their environment of acetate-producing carbon sources and begin to rely on their ability to scavenge for acetate. This review explains why, when, and how cells excrete or dissimilate acetate. The central components of the "switch" (phosphotransacetylase [PTA], acetate kinase [ACK], and AMP-forming acetyl coenzyme A synthetase [AMP-ACS]) and the behavior of cells that lack these components are introduced. Acetyl phosphate (acetyl approximately P), the high-energy intermediate of acetate dissimilation, is discussed, and conditions that influence its intracellular concentration are described. Evidence is provided that acetyl approximately P influences cellular processes from organelle biogenesis to cell cycle regulation and from biofilm development to pathogenesis. The merits of each mechanism proposed to explain the interaction of acetyl approximately P with two-component signal transduction pathways are addressed. A short list of enzymes that generate acetyl approximately P by PTA-ACKA-independent mechanisms is introduced and discussed briefly. Attention is then directed to the mechanisms used by cells to "flip the switch," the induction and activation of the acetate-scavenging AMP-ACS. First, evidence is presented that nucleoid proteins orchestrate a progression of distinct nucleoprotein complexes to ensure proper transcription of its gene. Next, the way in which cells regulate AMP-ACS activity through reversible acetylation is described. Finally, the "acetate switch" as it exists in selected eubacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes, including humans, is described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alan J Wolfe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Ehrmann MA, Vogel RF. Molecular taxonomy and genetics of sourdough lactic acid bacteria. Trends Food Sci Technol 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2004.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|