Feed resources for poultry production in Asia and the Pacific. II. Plant protein sources

Investigating the effect of sesame meal replacement for soybean meal in diets with different levels of calcium and phytase enzyme in broiler chickens

BACKGROUND

As a major part of the cost of broiler farms is related to their feed, breeders are looking for diets at a reasonable price. One of these affordable ingredients is sesame meal (SM), which can be used to replace soybean meal (SBM) in diets.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to investigate the effect of replacing SBM with SM in diets with different levels of calcium (Ca) and phytase (Phy) during the grower (11-24 days), finisher (25-42 days) and whole phases (11-42 days) on the growth performance, carcass characteristics and blood serum parameters of broiler chickens.

METHODS

A total of 600 1-day-old Ross 308 broiler male chicks were randomly dispensed to 12 dietary treatments with five replicates (10 birds per replicate) based on a completely randomized design in a factorial arrangement of 3 × 2 × 2 with 3 levels of SM (0%, 10% and 20%), 2 levels of Ca (standard (0.87% and 0.79% for grower and finisher phases, respectively) and 0.2% higher than the standard amount) and 2 levels of Phy (0 and 700 FTU/kg diet).

RESULTS

During the study, the significant effects of SM, Ca and Phy on the daily average body weight gain (DAWG) and daily feed intake (DFI) were observed, whereas for the feed conversion ratio, only the effect of SM was significant (p < 0.05). During the finisher and whole phases, the SM and Ca levels influenced the DAWG and DFI, whereas the interaction between Phy and Ca was also significant for DAWG (p < 0.05). The main effects of SM and Ca on the relative weights of breast, heart and liver were significant (p < 0.05). Application of 20% of SM significantly reduced serum Ca concentration (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Generally, the inclusion of more than 10% of SM in the broilers diet is not recommended. In addition, the use of Phy and Ca levels 0.2% higher than standard in broilers diet could improve the birds' performance.

Feeding Value of Lupins, Field Peas, Faba Beans and Chickpeas for Poultry: An Overview

Grain legumes are fair sources of protein, amino acids and energy, and can be used as a replacement for soybean meal in poultry feed formulations as the soybean meal becomes short in supply and costly. However, a concern associated with the use of grain legumes in poultry feeding is the presence of antinutritional factors. The effective processing and utilisation of these grain legumes in poultry feeding are well documented. The current review focuses on four selected grain legumes (lupins [Lupinus albus and Lupinus angustifolius], field peas [Phaseolus vulgaris], faba beans [Vicia faba] and chickpeas [Cicer arietinum]) and their nutrient content, the presence of antinutritional factors, processing methods and feeding value, including updated data based on recent research findings.

Utilization of lactobacillus fermented proteins from meat processing wastewaters as a dietary protein source in poultry feed

The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of fermented meat processing wastewater protein hydrolysate (FWMPH) prepared by Pediococcus lolii fermentation as an alternative protein source on growth performance, serum biochemistry, and hematological parameters of broiler chicks. FWMPH exhibited antioxidant, anti-angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), and antimicrobial properties. A total of 60 one-day-old Vencobb broiler chicks were divided into five dietary groups on day 8 and a feeding trial was performed for 48 days. Diets were prepared by replacing soya protein concentrate (SPC) at different levels of FWMPH as the protein source. These diets were denoted as SPSD (100% SPC), FMP-25 (25% FWMPH + 75% SPC), FMP-50 (50% FWMPH + 50% SPC), FMP-75 (75% FWMPH + 25% SPC), and FMP-100 (100% FWMPH). FMP-25 and FMP-100 diet group broiler chicks showed the highest and lowest feed consumption (P < 0.05), respectively. However, the highest body weight gain (1506.08 ± 52.52 g) was observed in FMP-75 diet-fed chicks (P < 0.05). Furthermore, FMP-75 chicks displayed better feed conversion ratio (1.96), feed efficiency ratio (0.51), and protein efficiency ratio (2.32) values than other diet group chicks (P < 0.05), implying that the FMP-75 diet had better effect on the broiler growth. Also, the FMP-75 diet chicks showed better hematological values, serum biochemical parameters revealed no negative effect upon FWMPH consumption, and no pathological signs were observed in the histopathological examination as compared to the SPSD diet group (P < 0.05). Hence, the results could be helpful in the application of FWMPH at 75% level in the poultry feed as a potential protein ingredient in the countries looking for local feed protein products as soya bean meal replacement.

Protein for Human Consumption From Oilseed Cakes: A Review

Oilseed cakes left after the oil extraction for different purposes are chiefly used as cattle feed, compost amendment, or plant conditioner. These oilseed cakes are rich in protein, nitrogenous compounds, and minerals. Beside its conventional usage, studies have been conducted to utilize these protein rich resources for human consumption. Considering the exponentially increasing human population and escalating food prices, these protein rich sources can be a novel food commodity and used to extract protein. The quality and functional properties of extracted oilseed cake proteins not only supplement the existing protein sources for the human consumption but also solve the problem of oilseed cakes disposal along with the additional income to the oilseed crop producers and processers. Production of proteins for human consumption from oil seed cakes may also reduce the carbon and water footprints while producing animal protein. The present review will focused on analyzing the oilseed cake as a protein source, characterization, extraction techniques, and utilization in food products.

A critical review on biogas production from edible and non-edible oil cakes

The circular economy is at the core of sustainable development. The generation of biogas from the massive quantity of agricultural waste biomass is one of the critical drivers of the circular economy. Biogas has enormous renewable energy potential and has multitudes of applications in today's energy-intensive society. Oil cakes, a known Agri-waste, are the by-product of oil processing, and are rich in nutrients. The edible oil cakes mostly have been used as a cattle feed; however, non-edible oil cakes do not find many applications. Their production is continuously escalating as non-edible oils are increasingly used in biodiesel production. Recently, there is a lot of emphasis on biogas production from these oil cakes. This paper reviews in detail biogas production from both edible and non-edible oil cakes. Chemical composition and various other applications of the cakes are also reviewed in brief. The survey illustrates that multiple parameters such as inoculum sources, co-digestion and reactor design affect the biogas production. All those factors, along with biogas upgrading and the economy of the process, are reviewed. Finally, future research opportunities are suggested to improve the viability of the biogas production from oil cakes.

Enhancing the Quality of Total Mixed Ration Containing Cottonseed or Rapeseed Meal by Optimization of Fermentation Conditions

Cottonseed meal (CSM) and rapeseed meal (RSM) are protein sources in livestock feed. However, the applications of both ingredients are limited in diets due to the existence of anti-nutritional factors such as free gossypol and glucosinolate. The aim of this study was to determine the optimal fermentation conditions for reducing anti-nutritional factors and increasing the nutritional value of fermented total mixed rations containing cottonseed or rapeseed meal. An orthogonal design L9 (34) was performed to optimize the fermentation conditions, including fermentation time, temperature, moisture content and microbial strain. Optimum fermentation conditions were performed using different fermentation times (48, 60, 72 h), fermentation temperatures (28 °C, 32 °C, 36 °C), moisture content (40%, 50%, 60%) and microbial inoculations (1 = Bacillus clausii with 1 × 109 CFU/kg DM for CSM or 1 × 1010 CFU/kg DM for RSM; 2 = Saccharomyces cariocanus with 5 × 109 CFU/kg DM; 3 = mixed strain (B. clausii:S. cariocanus ratio 1:1). The results show that the concentration of free gossypol content was reduced (p < 0.05), while the crude protein content was increased (p < 0.05) in CSM through optimum fermentation conditions: time 60 h; temperature 32 °C; moisture content 50% and inoculated with B. clausii (1 × 109 CFU/kg DM) as well as S. cariocanus (5 × 109 CFU/kg DM). Likewise, the concentration of glucosinolate was lowered (p < 0.05) and the crude protein was increased (p < 0.05) in RSM through optimum fermentation conditions: time 60 h; temperature 28 °C; moisture 50% and inoculated with B. clausii (1 × 1010 CFU/kg DM) as well as S. cariocanus (5 × 109 CFU/kg DM). Our findings indicate that the optimal fermentation conditions of total mixed rations with cottonseed meal or rapeseed meal enhance the nutritional value, thereby making them viable and usable feedstuffs for potential use in livestock industries.

Evaluation of feeding value of combination of alternate protein sources in White Leghorn layers

1. A study was conducted to evaluate the effects of including graded levels of an alternate protein mixture (APM) containing cottonseed meal, distillery dried grain with solubles and mustard seed meal in a fixed ratio as a substitute for soybean meal in layer diets (hens aged 27 to 46 weeks). The trial studied the possibility of higher inclusion levels of APM with increased dietary concentrations of crude protein (CP) or critical amino acids (CAA). 2. Maize-soybean meal diet was used as the control diet. In experiment 1, APM was included at 0, 120, 160 and 200 g/kg diet (145 g/kg CP). In experiment 2, the control and three test diets (200 g/kg APM) with three levels of CP (145, 155 and 165 g/kg) were used. In experiment 3, a control and four test diets (200 g/kg APM) with four concentrations of CAA (100%, 105%, 110% and 115% relative to the control) were used. In all experiments, each diet was fed ad libitum to nine replicates of 88 birds each, housed in colony cages. 3. In experiment 1, egg production (EP) and feed intake (FI) were not affected by feeding up to 160 g/kg APM, but, at 200 g/kg, EP was significantly reduced. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) for the hens fed the highest level of APM was similar to the control. Egg weight (EW) and egg mass (EM) in the 160 and 200 g/kg AMS groups were lower than the control group. 4. Increase in dietary CP from 145 to 155 g/kg improved EP and reduced FCR to levels similar to the control group. EM in hens fed 165 g/kg APM was similar to the control in experiment 2. 5. Increasing concentrations of CAA progressively improved EP and reduced FCR in experiment 3. The EP at CAA 110% and FCR at CAA 105% were similar to the control group. 6. Based on the results, it was concluded that the APM can be included up to 160 g/kg diet without affecting layer performance, as long as the diet supplied the recommended levels of protein and amino acids. By increasing either protein from 145 to 155 g/kg or CAA concentrations by 10%, the dietary levels of the APM could be increased to 200 g/kg without affecting the layer performance.

Solid-state fermented plant protein sources in the diets of broiler chickens: A review

Protein sources are the second most important component in poultry diets. Due to the fluctuation in price of soybean meal (SBM) and persistent increase in feed prices, nutritionists have been exploring alternative protein sources. Replacement of SBM with alternative protein sources in poultry diets could reduce human-livestock competition for soybean and support the production of more animal protein. However, the use of alternative protein sources is limited to low inclusion due to the presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANF) such as glucosinolates (rapeseed meal), gossypol (cottonseed meal), non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) in lupin flour, high fibre (palm kernel cake), total phenolic contents and phytic acid (canola meal) known to impair animal performance, nutrient digestibility and feed utilization. As a processing technique, solid-state fermentation (SSF) has been researched for a long time in the food industry. An important objective of SSF is the production of enzymes, organic acids and other metabolites of economic importance. In recent times, SSF has been employed to enhance nutrient bioavailability, inhibit gut pathogenic bacteria and reduce ANF in plant protein sources resulting in improved nutrient digestibility, thereby improving performance and gut health of broiler chickens. Unlike pigs, there is still a dearth of information on feeding solid-state fermented feed ingredients to broiler chickens. This review aims to describe the nutritional value of the solid-state fermented products of rapeseed meal, canola meal, cottonseed meal, palm kernel cake and lupin flour on performance and intestinal health of broiler chickens.

Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.): orphan crop, nutraceutical or just plain food?

Although grass pea is an environmentally successful robust legume with major traits of interest for food and nutrition security, the genetic potential of this orphan crop has long been neglected. Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) is a Neolithic plant that has survived millennia of cultivation and has spread over three continents. It is a robust legume crop that is considered one of the most resilient to climate changes and to be survival food during drought-triggered famines. The hardy penetrating root system allows the cultivation of grass pea in various soil types, including marginal ones. As an efficient nitrogen fixer, it meets its own nitrogen requirements and positively benefits subsequent crops. However, already in ancient India and Greece, overconsumption of the seeds and a crippling neurological disorder, later coined neurolathyrism, had been linked. Overemphasis of their suspected toxic properties has led to disregard the plant's exceptionally positive agronomic properties and dietary advantages. In normal socio-economic and environmental situations, in which grass pea is part of a balanced diet, neurolathyrism is virtually non-existent. The etiology of neurolathyrism has been oversimplified and the deficiency in methionine in the diet has been overlooked. In view of the global climate change, this very adaptable and nutritious orphan crop deserves more attention. Grass pea can become a wonder crop if the double stigma on its reputation as a toxic plant and as food of the poor can be disregarded. Additionally, recent research has exposed the potential of grass pea as a health-promoting nutraceutical. Development of varieties with an improved balance in essential amino acids and diet may be relevant to enhance the nutritional value without jeopardizing the multiple stress tolerance of this promising crop.

Growth performance, gastrointestinal weight, microbial metabolites and apparent retention of components in broiler chickens fed up to 11% rice bran in a corn-soybean meal diet without or with a multi-enzyme supplement

We investigated the effects of adding up to 11% rice bran (RB) in corn-soybean meal diets fed to broiler chickens without or with a multi-enzyme supplement (MES). The MES supplied xylanase, β-glucanase, invertase, protease, cellulase, α-amylase and mannanase with targeted activity of 2,500, 300, 700, 10,000, 1,200, 24,000, and 20 U/kg of feed, respectively. The study used a two-phase feeding program (starter, d 0 to 24; finisher, d 25 to 35) with RB added at 5% and 11%, respectively creating 4 diets in each phase. Diets were iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous and contained phytase (500 FTU/kg) and TiO2 as a digestibility marker. Three hundred and sixty d-old male Ross 708 broiler chicks were placed in cages based on BW (15 birds/cage) and allocated to 4 diets (n = 6). Birds had free access to feed and water. Body weight and feed intake were recorded. Excreta samples were collected 3 d prior to the end of each phase for apparent retention (AR) of components. Samples of birds were sacrificed on d 24 and 35 for gut weight and ceca digesta for organic acid content. There was no interaction (P > 0.10) between RB and MES on BWG and FCR in starter or finisher phase. In finisher phase, birds fed MES had better BWG (961 versus 858 g) and FCR (1.69 versus 1.86) than birds fed non-MES diets (P < 0.01). Feeding RB reduced (P = 0.02) BWG in finisher phase resulting in lower d 35 BW. Birds fed RB had higher (P ≤ 0.01) gizzard weight on d 24 and 35 than non-RB birds. An interaction (P ≤ 0.01) between RB and MES on concentrations of propionic and iso-butyric acids in ceca digesta showed that MES reduced these acids in non-RB diet. The AR of gross energy was higher (P < 0.02) for MES versus non-MES birds in starter and finisher phases. In conclusion, independently, RB increased gizzard weight and reduced final BW whereas MES improved growth and energy utilization.

Replacement of rice straw with cassava-top silage on rumen ecology, fermentation and nutrient digestibilities in dairy steers

Conserving good source of roughage for dry-season feeding of ruminants is of the utmost importance. Therefore, cassava-top silage (CTS) was prepared and was studied for its feeding level and nutritive value in dairy steers. Four rumen-fistulated dairy steers (75% Holstein Friesian × 25% Thai Native), ~3 years old with 209 ± 50 kg liveweight, were randomly assigned according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design to study the effect of CTS on feed intake, nutrient digestibility and rumen fermentation efficiency. The treatments were four different feeding ratios of CTS to rice straw, as follows: 0:100, 30:70, 60:40 and 100:0 respectively. Increasing the ratio of CTS to rice straw in the feed remarkably reduced the rumen protozoal population (P &lt; 0.01), thus subsequently decreasing rumen methane production (P &lt; 0.01), whereas other rumen microorganisms remained similar among treatments. Correspondingly, rumen propionate production was enhanced (P &lt; 0.01) by increasing the CTS to rice ratio in the feed, and the acetate:propionate ratio decreased (P &lt; 0.01). Furthermore, rumen ammonia nitrogen and blood urea nitrogen increased (P &lt; 0.01) with an increasing proportion of CTS in the feed, whereas nitrogen retention was highest when the proportion of CTS in the feed was 100%. Although the feed DM intakes were similar, apparent digestibilities of DM, organic matter, crude protein as well as neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre were significantly improved by the increase in the percentage of CTS in the feed. It could be concluded that including CTS in the feed at a level of 60–100% improved the rumen fermentation, nitrogen balance and nutrient digestibilities, and is highly recommended for use in the ruminant production in the tropics, as it is a practically simple-to-prepare on-farm feeding intervention.

Metabolizable energy and standardized ileal digestible amino acid contents of a high-protein sunflower meal fed to broiler chicks

This study was conducted to determine the standardized ileal digestible amino acid (AA) and nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn) contents of a high-protein sunflower meal (HiSFM) fed to broiler chicks. A total of 144 broiler chicks were randomly allotted to one of three dietary treatments with eight replicate cages of six birds. Birds were fed the experimental diets from day 14 to day 21 of age. The results showed that gross energy, crude protein, nonphytate phosphorus, lysine (Lys), methionine (Met), threonine (Thr), and total nonstarch polysaccharide contents of HiSFM were 4178 kcal kg−1, 48.7%, 0.86%, 1.59%, 0.75%, 1.45%, and 14.6%, as-fed basis, respectively. The standardized ileal digestible Lys, Met, and Thr of HiSFM were 12.6, 6.8, and 11.6 g kg−1(dry matter basis), respectively. In addition, the AMEncontent of HiSFM fed to broiler chicks was 1785 kcal kg−1. In conclusion, compared with literature values for sunflower meal, HiSFM had lower standardized ileal digestibility of indispensable AA and higher AMEncontent. The standardized ileal digestible AA and AMEnvalues of HiSFM obtained from the current study could be used when formulating poultry diets and to obtain predictable bird performance.

Improvement of the nutritional value of high-protein sunflower meal for broiler chickens using multi-enzyme mixtures

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of replacing soybean meal (SBM) with a high-protein sunflower meal (HiSFM) without or with multi-enzyme mixtures on growth performance, nutrient utilization, jejunal digesta viscosity, and excreta moisture in broiler chickens. In experiment 1, 400 chicks were divided into 40 replicates of 10 birds and fed for 35 d a corn-soybean meal (CSBM) control diet or CSBM with 25 (HiSFM25), 50 (HiSFM50), 75 (HiSFM75), or 100% (HiSFM100) of total SBM replaced by HiSFM. During d 0 to 35, increasing HiSFM content in diets linearly reduced (P < 0.0001) BW, FI, and BW gain (BWG). Feeding HiSFM25 or HiSFM50 resulted in similar growth performance as CSBM (P > 0.05). In experiment 2, 120 chicks were divided into 24 replicates of 5 birds and fed CSBM or HiSFM75 diet without or with enzyme A (supplying 4,000, 500, and 8,000 U/kg of xylanase, alpha-amylase, and protease, respectively) or enzyme B (supplying 1,700, 1,100, 240, 30, 1,200, 360, 1,500, and 120 U/kg of cellulase, pectinase, mannanase, galactanase, xylanase, glucanase, amylase, and protease, respectively) for 21 days. Excreta moisture content was determined weekly, and birds were euthanized on d 22 to collect jejunal and ileal digesta for viscosity and apparent ileal digestibility (AID) measurements, respectively. Compared with CSBM, feeding HiSFM75 reduced (P < 0.05) BWG and G: F, enzymes A and D alleviated BWG and G: F reduction (P < 0.05), and enzyme A reduced (P = 0.037) the excreta moisture content, whereas the treatments did not influence AID or jejunal digesta viscosity measurements. In conclusion, experiment 1 results show that HiSFM can replace up to 50% of SBM without depressing growth performance in either the starter or finisher phase, whereas experiment 2 shows that enzymes A and B supplementation can alleviate the growth depression associated with feeding HiSFM75. These results suggest that enzyme supplementation can enhance HiSFM inclusion in broiler diets without affecting productivity or barn hygiene management.

The impacts of dietary Nigella sativa meal and Avizyme on growth, nutrient digestibility and blood metabolites of meat-type quail

The present study was performed to evaluate the effect of varying proportion of Nigella sativa meal (NSM) in the diets with or without Avizyme supplementation on growing Japanese quail performance. A 4 × 2 factorial experiment was conducted including four levels of NSM (0%, 10%, 15% and 20% of the diet) and two levels of dietary Avizyme supplementation (0 or 0.5 g/kg diet) through the growing period (1–6 weeks of age). A total number of 600 unsexed 1-week-old Japanese quail chicks were randomly distributed into eight treatment groups. The effects of NSM inclusion levels were highly significant (P < 0.01) on the values of live bodyweight, daily bodyweight gain and daily feed intake at all periods studied. The incorporation of 10% NSM of the diet recorded the best values of live bodyweight and daily bodyweight gain compared with the Control and other NSM levels. Quail fed diets contained 10% or 15% NSM had higher (P < 0.01) daily feed intake than those in the Control, but feed conversion ratio was not statistically affected at all studied ages. All carcass traits studied were significantly (P < 0.01) affected by feeding the NSM diet. The digestion coefficients of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, ether extract and nitrogen-free extract were significantly (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05) increased in chicks fed diets containing 10% NSM as compared with the Control. Quail fed diets including 10% or 15% NSM had increased serum concentrations of total protein, albumin and a higher A : G ratio. All serum lipid constituents except high density lipoprotein were at lower (P < 0.01) concentrations in blood serum of quail fed diets containing NSM. Using NSM at level of 20% of the diet had a negative impact on growth, carcass characteristics, and nutrient digestibility. Neither Avizyme supplementation alone nor the interaction between NSM and Avizyme had any statistically impact on all studied parameters. It can be concluded that NSM could be included in growing quail diets up to 15% without any Avizyme supplementation to support growth performance and feed utilisation, however higher NSM levels negatively affected performance, carcass traits and nutrient digestibility.

Effects of dietary lentil seeds inclusion on performance, carcass characteristics and cecal pH of broiler chickens

This study evaluated the effects of dietary replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with two cultivars of lentil seeds (cv. Eston, green-seeded and cv. Anicia, green marbled-seeded) on performance, carcass characteristics and pH of the cecal digesta in broiler chick diets. Day old, broiler chicks (1,000; Cobb 500) were randomly allocated to the following 5 treatments, viz. a diet based on corn and SBM as control; 200 g/kg of raw lentil seeds cv. Eston (LE); 400 g/kg of LE; 200 g/kg of raw lentil seeds cv. Anicia (LA); 400 g/kg of LA. The broilers fed raw lentils had comparable BW, ADG, ADFI and FCR to the control group. The digestive organ sizes (i.e. gizzard, heart, liver, pancreas, small intestine, caecum and the small intestine) and cecal pH were not affected by feeding diets with increasing levels of raw lentil seeds. Nevertheless, the data showed that cultivar (cv. Anicia) increased (P = 0.021) small intestine weight. A significant interaction between lentil levels and cultivars was observed for pancreas weight (P=0.042). Carcass, breast, thigh weight and dressing percentage were not affected by feeding diets with lentil seeds. No significant interaction between lentil levels and cultivars was noticed for growth performance, carcass characteristics as well as pH of the cecal digesta. Based on the results, it can be concluded that lentil seeds (cv. Eston or cv. Anicia) can be used as an alternative protein source to replace SBM in broiler chicken diets, at inclusion levels up to 200 g/kg.

Nutritional value of high fiber co-products from the copra, palm kernel, and rice industries in diets fed to pigs

High fiber co-products from the copra and palm kernel industries are by-products of the production of coconut oil and palm kernel oil. The co-products include copra meal, copra expellers, palm kernel meal, and palm kernel expellers. All 4 ingredients are very high in fiber and the energy value is relatively low when fed to pigs. The protein concentration is between 14 and 22 % and the protein has a low biological value and a very high Arg:Lys ratio. Digestibility of most amino acids is less than in soybean meal but close to that in corn. However, the digestibility of Lys is sometimes low due to Maillard reactions that are initiated due to overheating during drying. Copra and palm kernel ingredients contain 0.5 to 0.6 % P. Most of the P in palm kernel meal and palm kernel expellers is bound to phytate, but in copra products less than one third of the P is bound to phytate. The digestibility of P is, therefore, greater in copra meal and copra expellers than in palm kernel ingredients. Inclusion of copra meal should be less than 15 % in diets fed to weanling pigs and less than 25 % in diets for growing-finishing pigs. Palm kernel meal may be included by 15 % in diets for weanling pigs and 25 % in diets for growing and finishing pigs.

Rice bran contains the pericarp and aleurone layers of brown rice that is removed before polished rice is produced. Rice bran contains approximately 25 % neutral detergent fiber and 25 to 30 % starch. Rice bran has a greater concentration of P than most other plant ingredients, but 75 to 90 % of the P is bound in phytate. Inclusion of microbial phytase in the diets is, therefore, necessary if rice bran is used. Rice bran may contain 15 to 24 % fat, but it may also have been defatted in which case the fat concentration is less than 5 %. Concentrations of digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) are slightly less in full fat rice bran than in corn, but defatted rice bran contains less than 75 % of the DE and ME in corn. The concentration of crude protein is 15 to 18 % in rice bran and the protein has a high biological value and most amino acids are well digested by pigs. Inclusion of rice bran in diets fed to pigs has yielded variable results and based on current research it is recommended that inclusion levels are less than 25 to 30 % in diets for growing-finishing pigs, and less than 20 % in diets for weanling pigs. However, there is a need for additional research to determine the inclusion rates that may be used for both full fat and defatted rice bran.

Effects of Palm Kernel Expellers on Productive Performance, Nutrient Digestibility, and White Blood Cells of Lactating Sows

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of palm kernel expellers on productive performance, nutrient digestibility, and changes in white blood cells (WBC) of lactating sows. A total of 14 sows (200±12 kg of average body weight [BW]; 2.5 of average parity) were used and moved from gestation room to farrowing room on d 109 of gestation. Sows were randomly assigned to 2 dietary treatments in a completely randomized design. The treatments were a diet based on corn and soybean meal (CON) and CON added with 20% of palm kernel expellers (PKE). Sows were fed the treatments for 28 days (weaning) after farrowing. Blood was collected from each sow and 4 randomly selected piglets from each sow before farrowing or on d 3, 7, or 14 of lactation. Sows were fed respective treatments containing 0.2% chromic oxide from d 15 to 21 of lactation. Fecal samples were collected daily for the last 3 days after the 4-d adjustment period. Measurements were performances and WBC changes of sows and litter, nutrient digestibility of sows, and daily diarrhea of litter. Sows fed PKE had greater average daily feed intake (7.38 vs 7.10 kg/d; p<0.05) and lost less BW (−6.85 vs −8.54 kg; p<0.05) and backfat depth (−0.42 vs −0.71 mm; p<0.05) than those fed CON. However, there were no differences on digestibility of dry matter, nitrogen, and energy and weaning to estrus interval of sows fed either CON or PKE. Piglets from sows fed PKE gained more BW (203 vs 181 g/d; p = 0.08) and had less frequency of diarrhea (6.80 vs 8.56%; p = 0.07) than those from sows fed CON. On the other hand, no difference was found on preweaning mortality of piglets from sows fed either CON or PKE. Sows fed PKE had lower number of WBC (9.57 vs 11.82 ×10³/μL; p = 0.09) before farrowing than those fed CON, but no difference on d 3 and 7. Similarly, piglets from sows fed PKE had also lower number of WBC (7.86 vs 9.80 ×10³/μL; p<0.05) on d 14 of lactation than those from sows fed CON, but no difference on d 3 and 7. In conclusion, addition of 20% palm kernel expellers to lactation diet based on corn and soybean meal had no negative effects on productive performance, nutrient digestibility, and WBC changes of lactating sows.

Effects of Palm Kernel Expellers on Growth Performance, Nutrient Digestibility, and Blood Profiles of Weaned Pigs

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of palm kernel expellers on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and blood profiles of weaned pigs. A total of 88 weaned pigs (6.94±0.76 kg body weight [BW]; 28 d old) were randomly allotted to 2 dietary treatments (4 pigs/pen; 11 replicates/treatment) in a randomized complete block design (sex as a block). The dietary treatments were a typical nursery diet based on corn and soybean meal (CON) and CON added with 20% of palm kernel expellers (PKE). Pigs were fed for 6 wk using a 3-phase feeding program with declining diet complexity and with phases of 1, 2, and 3 wk, respectively. Blood was collected from randomly selected 2 pigs in each pen before weaning and on d 7 after weaning. Pigs were fed respective dietary treatments containing 0.2% chromic oxide from d 29 to 35 after weaning. Fecal samples were collected from randomly selected 2 pigs in each pen daily for the last 3 days after the 4-d adjustment period. Measurements were growth performances, digestibility of dry matter, nitrogen and energy, white and red blood cell counts, packed cell volume, and incidence of diarrhea. The PKE increased average daily gain (ADG) (246 vs 215 g/d; p = 0.06) and average daily feed intake (ADFI) (470 vs 343 g/d; p<0.05) and decreased gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) (0.522 vs 0.628 g/g; p<0.05) during phase 2 compared with CON, but did not affect growth performance during phase 1 and 3. During overall experimental period, PKE increased ADG (383 vs 362 g/d; p = 0.05) and ADFI (549 vs 496 g/d; p<0.05) compared with CON, but did not affect G:F. However, no differences were found on digestibility of dry matter, nitrogen, and energy between CON and PKE. The PKE reduced frequency of diarrhea (15% vs 25%; p = 0.08) for the first 2 wk after weaning compared with CON. Similarly, PKE decreased white blood cells (8.19 vs 9.56×10(3)/μL; p = 0.07), red blood cells (2.92 vs 3.25×10(6)/μL; p = 0.09), and packed cell volume (11.1% vs 12.6%; p = 0.06) on d 7 after weaning compared with CON. In conclusion, addition of 20% palm kernel expellers to nursery diet based on corn and soybean meal had no negative effects on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and blood profiles of weaned pigs.

Dietary inclusion of raw faba bean instead of soybean meal and enzyme supplementation in laying hens: Effect on performance and egg quality

An experiment was conducted with 160 Hisex Brown laying hens to evaluate the effect of different inclusion levels of faba bean (FB) and enzyme supplementation on productive performance and egg quality parameters. The experimental diets consisted of five levels of FB: 0% (control), 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%, substituting soybean meal (SBM), and two levels of enzyme supplementation (0 or 250 mg/kg). Each dietary treatment was assigned to four replicate groups and the experiment lasted 22 weeks. A positive relationship (P < 0.05) was found between FB inclusion and body weight (BW) change of hens when compared to those of the control treatment. Enzyme supplementation significantly affected the final hens’ BW. Feed consumption (FC) of hens was statistically increased with increasing FB level up to 50%. Supplementing dietary enzyme mixture at 250 mg/kg led to improvement in FC at all studied ages (P < 0.05). Inclusion of 25% or 50% FB in diets had no adverse effects on feed conversion ratio (FCR) compared to the higher FB inclusion levels (75% or 100%). Egg weight (EW), egg number (EN) and egg mass (EM) were significantly (P < 0.05) influenced by FB inclusion in diet during the entire experimental periods, except for EN and EM at 20–24 weeks of age. Egg productive parameters were not influenced by enzyme mixture supplementation (P > 0.05). The main effect of FB levels replacing for SBM affected (P < 0.05) yolk and shell percentages, yolk index, yolk to albumen ratio, shell thickness and egg shape index. It can be concluded that FB and enzyme supplementation could be included in hens diet at less than 50% instead of SBM to support egg productive performance, however higher raw FB levels negatively affected egg production indices and quality.

Standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in copra meal, palm kernel expellers, palm kernel meal, and soybean meal fed to growing pigs

Sixty-six barrows (initial BW: 27.4 ± 2.8 kg) were used to determine the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in copra meal (CM), palm kernel expellers from Indonesia (PKE-IN), palm kernel expellers from Costa Rica (PKE-CR), palm kernel meal from Costa Rica (PKM), and soybean meal (SBM) without or with exogenous phytase. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism cages and allotted to 11 diets with 6 replicate pigs per diet in a generalized randomized block design. Five diets were formulated by mixing cornstarch and sugar with CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, PKM, or SBM. Five additional diets, which were identical to the initial 5 diets but supplemented with 800 units of phytase, were also formulated. A P-free diet was used to measure basal endogenous losses of P by the pigs. Feces were collected for 5 d using the marker to marker approach after a 5-d adaptation period. Analyzed total P in CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, PKM, and SBM was 0.52, 0.51, 0.53, 0.54, and 0.67%, respectively. Phytate P was 0.22, 0.35, 0.38, 0.32, and 0.44% in CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, PKM, and SBM, respectively. Addition of phytase increased (P < 0.05) the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of P from 60.6 to 80.8, 27.3 to 56.5, 32.6 to 59.9, 48.9 to 64.1, and 41.1 to 72.2% in CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, PKM, and SBM, respectively. The ATTD of P in CM was greater (P < 0.05) than in any of the other ingredients. The ATTD of P in SBM and PKM was greater (P < 0.05) than in PKE-IN, with PKE-CR being intermediate. The STTD of P increased (P < 0.05) from 70.6 to 90.3, 37.6 to 66.4, 43.2 to 69.9, 57.9 to 73.5, and 49.6 to 81.1% in CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, PKM, and SBM, respectively, when microbial phytase was added to the diets. When expressed as a percentage of total P, phytate P concentration in the ingredient negatively affected (P < 0.05) the ATTD of P (107.09 - 1.0564 × % phytate P; R(2) = 87.1) and the STTD of P (116.3 - 1.0487 × % phytate P; R(2) = 89.4). In conclusion, microbial phytase increased P digestibility of CM, PKM, PKE-CR, PKE-IN, and SBM when fed to growing pigs, and the concentration of phytate P affects the response to microbial phytase.

Amino acid digestibility and concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy in copra meal, palm kernel expellers, and palm kernel meal fed to growing pigs

Two experiments were conducted to determine apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and standardized (SID) ileal digestibility of AA (Exp. 1) and the concentration of DE and ME (Exp. 2) in copra meal (CM), palm kernel expellers from Indonesia (PKE-IN), palm kernel expellers from Costa Rica (PKE-CR), palm kernel meal from Costa Rica (PKM), and soybean meal (SBM). In Exp. 1, 6 barrows (BW = 34.0 ± 1.4 kg) were randomly allotted to a 6 × 6 Latin square design with 6 diets and 6 periods. One diet contained 30% SBM and 4 diets were formulated with 20% SBM and 30% (as-fed basis) CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, or PKM. The last diet was an N-free diet that was used to measure basal endogenous losses of CP and AA. The SID of CP and all indispensable AA except Met, Thr, and Trp was less (P < 0.05) in CM than in SBM, and the SID of CP and all indispensable AA except Trp was less (P < 0.05) in PKE-IN than in SBM. There were no differences (P > 0.05) in the SID of CP and all indispensable AA between PKE-CR and SBM, but the SID of CP and all indispensable AA were less (P < 0.05) in PKM than in SBM. The SID of CP was less (P < 0.05) in PKM compared with CM and PKE-CR, but there were no differences (P > 0.05) in the SID of all indispensable AA among CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, and PKM. In Exp. 2, 48 barrows (BW = 35.2 ± 3.0 kg) were housed individually in metabolism cages and allotted to 6 diets in a randomized complete block design with 8 replicate pigs per diet. A corn-based diet and 5 diets containing 70% of the corn diet and 30% of CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, PKM, or SBM were formulated, and the DE and ME in CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, PKM, and SBM were calculated using the substitution procedure. The DE (3692, 3304, 2994, and 2905 kcal/kg DM) and ME (3496, 3184, 2883, and 2766 kcal/kg DM) in CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, and PKM, respectively, were less (P < 0.05) than the DE and ME in SBM (4275 and 4062 kcal/kg DM, respectively). Copra meal had greater (P < 0.05) DE than PKE-IN, PKE-CR, and PKM and greater (P < 0.05) ME than PKE-CR and PKM. The DE in PKE-IN was greater (P < 0.05) than in PKM. In conclusion, the SID of most indispensable AA is less in CM, PKE-IN, and PKM than in SBM, but no differences among CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, and PKM were observed. The concentrations of DE and ME are less in CM, PKE-IN, PKE-CR, and PKM than in SBM. The DE and ME of CM are greater than in PKE-CR and PKM.

Nutritional value of white lupins (Lupinus albus) for broilers: apparent metabolisable energy, apparent ileal amino acid digestibility and production performance

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the nutritional value of three cultivars (Promore, Kiev mutant and Ultra) of white lupins (Lupinus albus L.) for broilers. In experiment 1, the apparent metabolisable energy (AME) and ileal amino acid digestibility coefficients of the three cultivars were determined. The cultivar effects were significant (P < 0.05) for AME, but the ileal amino acid digestibility coefficients were similar (P > 0.05) between cultivars. The AME value of Ultra cultivar was lower (P < 0.05) than those of Promore and Kiev mutant cultivars. In Experiment 2, using the AME and ileal digestible amino acid values determined in Experiment 1, diets containing 200 g/kg of lupin were formulated and the effects of feeding these diets on performance, digestive tract development and excreta quality of broiler starters were investigated. Weight gain, feed intake and feed per gain of broilers fed diets containing white lupins were similar (P > 0.05) to those fed the maize-soybean meal diet. The performance of birds fed diets containing different cultivars of white lupins was similar (P > 0.05). Several digestive tract parameters were influenced by the dietary inclusion of white lupins. In particular, the relative liver weight and the relative empty weights of small intestine and caeca in birds fed diets containing white lupins were higher (P < 0.05) than those fed the maize-soybean meal diet. No differences (P > 0.05) were observed in the excreta quality scores between the birds fed the maize-soybean meal diet and those fed diets containing white lupins.

Bio-processing of agro-byproducts to animal feed

Agricultural and food-industry residues constitute a major proportion (almost 30%) of worldwide agricultural production. These wastes mainly comprise lignocellulosic materials, fruit and vegetable wastes, sugar-industry wastes as well as animal and fisheries refuse and byproducts. Agro-residues are rich in many bioactive and nutraceutical compounds, such as polyphenolics, carotenoids and dietary fiber among others. Agro residues are a major valuable biomass and present potential solutions to problems of animal nutrition and the worldwide supply of protein and calories, if appropriate technologies can be used for their valorization by nutrient enrichment. Technologies available for protein enrichment of these wastes include solid substrate fermentation, ensiling, and high solid or slurry processes. Technologies to be developed for the reprocessing of these wastes need to take account of the peculiarities of individual wastes and the environment in which they are generated, reprocessed, and used. In particular, such technologies need to deliver products that are safe, not just for animal feed use, but also from the perspective of human feeding. This review focuses on the major current applications of solid-state fermentation in relation to the feed sector.

Dehulled-micronised lupin (Lupinus albus L. cv. Multitalia) as the main protein source for broilers: influence on growth performance, carcass traits and meat fatty acid composition

BACKGROUND

A study was carried out to compare the effect of diets containing micronised-dehulled lupin (Lupinus albus L. cv. Multitalia) on growth performance, carcass yields and meat fatty acid profile of broiler chickens.

RESULTS

Hubbard strain chicks receiving from 14 d to slaughtering age (49 d) a wheat middlings-based diet containing either deffatted soybean meal (195 g kg(-1), control) or dehulled micromicronised lupins (240 g kg(-1)) as the main protein source were used. The inclusion of treated lupin meal in the diet did not result in lower growth rates of chicks. Lupin diet had no effect on dressing percentage, or breast and drumstick muscles relative weights, but a reduction of abdominal fat content was reported (P < 0.05). White and dark meats of birds fed lupin diet had significant (P < 0.05) lower L* (lightness) values and fat content (P < 0.05). Total collagen and water-holding capacity values were higher in lupin treatment. Feeding the lupin diet resulted in lower saturated fatty acid content in breast and drumstick meat, as well as the n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) ratio and saturation, atherogenic and thrombogenic indexes, while total PUFA and monounsaturated fatty acids levels increased (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that replacing soybean meal with dehulled-micronised lupin meal in diet for broiler chickens can produce meat with favourable lipid profile and quality, with no adverse effects on productive parameters.

Nutritional value of peas (Pisum sativum L.) for broilers: apparent metabolisable energy, apparent ileal amino acid digestibility and production performance

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the nutritional value of four cultivars (Santana, Miami, Courier and Rex) of peas (Pisum sativum L.) for broilers. In Experiment 1, the apparent metabolisable energy (AME) and the apparent ileal amino acid digestibility of these four cultivars were determined. The cultivar effects were found to be not significant (P > 0.05) for the AME and apparent ileal digestibility of amino acids, with the exception of arginine, which was lower (P < 0.05) in Courier than other cultivars. In Experiment 2, using the energy and digestible amino acid values determined in Experiment 1, diets containing 200 g/kg of the four cultivars of peas were formulated and the effects of feeding these diets on the performance and digestive tract development of broiler starters was investigated. Weight gain, feed intake and feed per gain of broiler starters fed diets containing peas were similar (P > 0.05) to those fed the maize-soybean meal diet. In general, the digestive tract development was unaffected (P > 0.05) by the inclusion of peas. The excreta scores of birds fed diets based on Santana, Miami and Rex were similar (P > 0.05) and that of the Courier-based diet was lower (P < 0.05) than those fed the maize-soy control diet. These results suggest that peas are good sources of metabolisable energy and digestible amino acids, and that they can be included at 200 g/kg level as a partial replacement for soybean meal in broiler starter diets without adverse effects on performance.