Non-destructive measurements of the egg quality

FEDM: a convolutional neural network based fertilised egg detection model

1. The production of goose eggs holds significant economic value on a global scale and the quality of fertilised eggs is crucial for the successful hatching and sustained development of the poultry industry. Developing a low-cost fertilised egg identification system that is suitable for large-scale testing is of great significance. However, existing methods are expensive and have high environmental detection requirements, which limit their promotion.2. To address this issue, an improved object detection model called FEDM based on YOLOv5 is proposed, which has been shown to be outstanding among nine models. The main network of YOLOv5 is enhanced with the SENet attention mechanism to improve the feature selection capability. The C3_DCNv3 is introduced to enhance the detection ability of blood vessels in the fertilised eggs. The application of Dyhead significantly improved the representation capacity of the object detection head without any computational overhead. The loss function is replaced with MPDIoU to simplify the calculation process.3. Experimental results from the augmented dataset showed that the average precision of the FEDM reached 96.7%, which is a 5.5% improvement compared to the YOLOv5s model. FEDM exhibited better detection performance on eggs from different shooting angles than the YOLOv5 algorithm and achieves high detection speed.4. The FEDM secured significant advancement on the detection rate of the fourth day fertilised egg compared to the YOLOv5 algorithm. Based on this result, savings and space utilisation can be made, which has practical application value.

Eggshell translucency: its relationship with specific gravity and eggshell color and its influence on broiler egg weight loss, hatchability, and embryonic mortalities

Eggshell quality is among the most important factors affecting hatchability in broiler breeders, and therefore several methods for its assessment are available in the poultry industry. Among them, eggshell translucency has received special attention in recent years due to its connection with ultrastructural disorganization of the shell layers. However, there is very limited data on the impact of translucency on hatching eggs and on the possible links between this trait and specific gravity (SG) or shell color. Thus, our study investigated associations and interactions between eggshell translucency, SG, and color on incubation parameters of eggs from the same breeding flock (Ross 308AP, 51 wk of age). To this end, light and dark eggs within 5 different SG categories (≥1.065, 1.070, 1.075, 1.080, and ≤1.085) were selected from 15,976 eggs, graded into 3 translucency scores, and later incubated to evaluate egg weight loss, hatchability and embryonic mortalities. In general, translucency scores were evenly distributed within SG categories (χ2 [8, N = 1,138] = 13.67, P = 0.090) and color (χ2 [2, N = 1,138] = 4.93, P = 0.084). No interactions between eggshell translucency and SG or between translucency and color were found for the analyzed variables. An interaction was observed between SG and eggshell color for the variable egg weight loss, where the light-shelled eggs, in most SG categories lost more weight throughout incubation than dark eggs. Eggshell translucency affected egg weight loss, hatchability, and embryonic mortality on 11 to 18 d of incubation, with highly translucent eggs showing the worst results. At the same time, eggs with SG lower than 1.070 displayed the greatest weight loss, lowest hatchability, and highest contamination. We found no influence of eggshell color on weight loss or hatchability, but light-shelled eggs exhibited higher late embryonic mortality. Together, these data suggest that despite its effects on certain hatching parameters, shell translucency bears no relationship to SG or color.

Trends in in ovo sexing technologies: insights and interpretation from papers and patents

Numerous researchers and institutions have been developing in ovo sexing technologies to improve animal welfare by identifying male embryos in an early embryonic stage and disposing of them before pain perception. This review gives a complete overview of the technological approaches reported in papers and patents by performing a thorough search using Web of Science and Patstat/Espacenet databases for papers and patents, respectively. Based on a total of 49 papers and 115 patent families reported until May 2023 worldwide, 11 technology categories were defined: 6 non-optical and 5 optical techniques. Every category was described for its characteristics while assessing its potential for application. Next, the dynamics of the publications of in ovo sexing techniques in both paper and patent fields were described through growth curves, and the interest or actual status was visualized using the number of paper citations and the actual legal status of the patents. When comparing the reported technologies in papers to those in patents, scientific gaps were observed, as some of the patented technologies were not reported in the scientific literature, e.g., ion mobility and mass spectrometry approaches. Generally, more diverse approaches in all categories were found in patents, although they do require more scientific evidence through papers or industrial adoption to prove their robustness. Moreover, although there is a recent trend for non-invasive techniques, invasive methods like analyzing DNA through PCR or hormones through immunosensing are still being reported (and might continue to be) in papers and patents. It was also observed that none of the technologies complies with all the industry requirements, although 5 companies already entered the market. On the one hand, more research and harmony between consumers, industry, and governments is necessary. On the other hand, close monitoring of the market performance of the currently available techniques will offer valuable insights into the potential and expectations of in ovo sexing techniques in the poultry industry.

Non-Destructive Eggshell Strength Assessment Using Hertz Contact Theory-Part II: Implementation and Validation

Eggshell strength is a critical quality factor for consumption eggs as it affects the probability of breakage in practice. In this study, a fast and low-cost methodology for the non-destructive determination of eggshell strength is presented. The method utilized a small steel ball to impact the egg and a microphone to analyse the impact characteristics. Hertz contact theory was applied to relate the measured impact characteristics to the local stiffness of the eggshell. Therefore, a total of 150 eggs were studied on which eight consecutive measurements per egg were taken around the equator at equidistant places. The results showed a strong correlation of 0.93 between the traditional static stiffness measured during quasi-static compression tests and the average stiffness obtained from the new methodology. This paves the way towards fast, low-cost and non-destructive in-line shell strength measurements to reduce the number of cracked eggs reaching the consumer.

Non-Destructive Eggshell Strength Assessment Using Hertz Contact Theory Part I: Theory and Applicability

In the egg industry, fast and highly reliable quality measurements are crucial. This study presents a novel method based on Hertz contact theory that allows for non-destructive determination of eggshell strength. The goal of the study was to evaluate the material strength (Young’s Modulus) and structural strength (stiffness) of eggshells. To this end, an experimental setup was constructed to measure the collision of an eggshell with a small steel ball, which was recorded using a laser vibrometer. The study analyzed a sample of 120 eggs and found a correlation of 0.85 between the traditional static stiffness measured during quasi-static compression tests and the stiffness obtained from the Hertz contact theory. The results show that Hertz contact theory is valid for small steel spheres impacting eggshells, while a sensitivity analysis indicated that the most important factor in determining the strength of the eggshell is the contact duration between the egg and the impactor. These results open up the possibility of grading eggs based on their shell strength in a non-destructive manner.

Development, Validation and Preliminary Experiments of a Measuring Technique for Eggs Aging Estimation Based on Pulse Phase Thermography

Assessment of the freshness of hen eggs destinated to human consumption is an extremely important goal for the modern food industry and sale chains, as eggs show a rapid natural aging which also depends on the storage conditions. Traditional techniques, such as candling and visual observation, have some practical limitations related to the subjective and qualitative nature of the analysis. The main objective of this paper is to propose a robust and automated approach, based on the use of pulsed phase thermography (PPT) and image processing, that can be used as an effective quality control tool to evaluate the freshness of eggs. As many studies show that the air chamber size is proportional to the egg freshness, the technique relies on the monitoring of the air chamber parameters to infer egg aging over time. The raw and phase infrared images are acquired and then post-processed by a dedicated algorithm which has been designed to automatically measure the size of the air chamber, in terms of normalized area and volume. The robustness of the method is firstly assessed through repeatability and reproducibility tests, which demonstrate that the uncertainty in the measure of the air chamber size never exceeds 5%. Then, an experimental campaign on a larger sample of 30 eggs, equally divided into three size categories (M, L, XL), is conducted. For each egg, the main sizes of the air chamber are measured with the proposed method and their evolution over time is investigated. Results have revealed, for all the egg categories, the existence of an analytic relationship and a high degree of correlation (R2 > 0.95) between the geometric data of the air chamber and the weight loss, which is a well-known marker of egg aging.

Development of a Novel Acoustic Spectroscopy Method for Detection of Eggshell Cracks

Non-destructive testing (NDT) for eggshell faults is highly important for the egg industry, as cracked eggs account for around 3% of total production. The most commonly used method at present, candling, is labor intensive, while computer vision systems are expensive and complicated. In this paper, we present a simple, yet efficient, novel method for eggshell crack detection by acoustic spectroscopy. Altogether, 693 sound recordings were evaluated by different classification methods. The results show a cross-validated 2.1% total classification error, with only 0.87% false positive rate, which is the crucial metric for fresh eggs. Adapting the developed method to an industrial setting may lead to a reliable, fast and cost-effective detection method.

Discovery of Spoilage Markers for Chicken Eggs Using Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry-Based Untargeted and Targeted Foodomics

The current approaches remain insufficient for measuring chicken egg spoilage or present analytical limitations. This study aimed to complement the existing analyses and identify novel markers using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry-based foodomics strategies. In the discovery set, comparative untargeted metabolomics was utilized to identify marker candidates in microbially inoculated chicken eggs. Markers were annotated by spectral matching with authentic standards, experimental libraries, or in silico fragmentation. In the validation set, targeted metabolomics was employed to verify the markers in stored chicken eggs from five farms. Statistical differences at a p-value < 0.001 revealed increases in lactic and 3-hydroxybutyric acids and decreases in phosphocholine, LPE(O-18:1), LPC(16:0), and LPC(18:0) in stored eggs. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis of the six combined markers yielded an AUC of 0.956 and a sensitivity and specificity of ∼90%. Four phospholipids were highlighted as a novel class of spoilage markers. Our findings may contribute to further industrial implementation, benefiting the quality assurance and food safety of poultry egg production.

An Egg Volume Measurement System Based on the Microsoft Kinect

Measuring the volume of bird eggs is a very important task for the poultry industry and ornithological research due to the high revenue generated by the industry. In this paper, we describe a prototype of a new metrological system comprising a 3D range camera, Microsoft Kinect (Version 2) and a point cloud post-processing algorithm for the estimation of the egg volume. The system calculates the egg volume directly from the egg shape parameters estimated from the least-squares method in which the point clouds of eggs captured by the Kinect are fitted to novel geometric models of an egg in a 3D space. Using the models, the shape parameters of an egg are estimated along with the egg’s position and orientation simultaneously under the least-squares criterion. Four sets of experiments were performed to verify the functionality and the performance of the system, while volumes estimated from the conventional water displacement method and the point cloud captured by a survey-grade laser scanner serve as references. The results suggest that the method is straightforward, feasible and reliable with an average egg volume estimation accuracy 93.3% when compared to the reference volumes. As a prototype, the software part of the system was implemented in a post-processing mode. However, as the proposed processing techniques is computationally efficient, the prototype can be readily transformed into a real-time egg volume system.

Repeatability vs. multiple-trait models to evaluate shell dynamic stiffness for layer chickens

Shell quality is one of the most important traits for improvement in layer chickens. Proper consideration of repeated records can increase the accuracy of estimated breeding values and thus genetic improvement of shell quality. The objective of this study was to compare different models for genetic evaluation of the collected data. For this study, 81,646 dynamic stiffness records on 21,321 brown egg layers and 93,748 records on 24,678 white egg layers from 4 generations were analyzed. Across generations, data were collected at 2 to 4 ages (at approximately 26, 42, 65, and 86 wk), with repeated records at each age. Seven models were compared, including 5 repeatability models with increasing complexity, a random regression model, and a multitrait model. The models were compared using Akaike Information Criteria with significance testing of nested models with a Log Likelihood Ratio test. Estimates of heritability were 0.31-0.36 for the brown line and 0.23-0.26 for the white line, but repeatability was higher for the model with age-specific permanent environment effects (0.59 for both lines) than for the model with an overall permanent environmental effects (0.47 for the brown and 0.41 for the white line). The model that allowed for permanent environmental effect within age and heterogeneous residual variance between ages resulted in improved fit compared to the traditional model that fits single permanent environment and residual effects, but was inferior in fit and predictive ability to the full multiple-trait model. The random regression model had better fit to the data than repeatability models but slightly worse than the multiple-trait model. For traits with repeated records at different ages, repeatability within and across ages as well as genetic correlations should be considered while choosing the number of records collected per individual as well as the model for genetic evaluation.

Detection of cracks in dried spaghetti using transmission images

Cracks are formed during the drying process of spaghetti production, which reduces its commercial value and quality; hence, it is very important to detect the cracks during the manufacturing process of dried spaghetti. However, the presence of mottles, originating from wheat bran, hinders automatic identification of cracks. In this study, we developed a simple method to detect the cracks induced in spaghetti using a digital camera. The cracks and mottles were distinguished by pixelating the transmission light image of the spaghetti and analyzing the image based on the geometric characteristics in the histogram consisting of all the pixels. The method was able to detect the cracks induced in the spaghetti with a rough surface, which was prepared via a bronze die using vacuum extrusion molding, as well as those induced in the spaghetti with a smooth surface, which was prepared using a Teflon die.

Utilizing optical coherence tomography in the nondestructive and noncontact measurement of egg shell thickness

The goal of this study was to measure the thickness of egg shells without any contact and by utilizing a nondestructive method that sends infrared light beam on the egg. We obtain measurement resolutions on the order of 7 μm up to a penetration depth of 1.7 mm from the actual surface of the egg shell. The measurement results we obtained show that optical coherence tomography can be used to accurately determine the egg shell thickness. Scanning the light beam over the surface allows for measuring the egg profile and monitoring the variations of shell thickness. Since this information gives a quantitative value for the uniformity of the egg shell structure, we anticipate that optical coherence tomography may be used in the quantitative evaluation of egg quality in in-line automated inspection systems.

Monitoring storage time and quality attribute of egg based on electronic nose

The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of an electronic nose (E-nose) technique for monitoring egg storage time and quality attributes. An electronic nose was used to distinguish eggs under cool and room-temperature storage by means of principal component analysis (PCA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), BP neural network (BPNN) and the combination of a genetic algorithm and BP neural network (GANN). Results showed that the E-nose could distinguish eggs of different storage time under cool and room-temperature storage by LDA, PCA, BPNN and GANN; better prediction values were obtained by GANN than by BPNN. Relationships were established between the E-nose signal and egg quality indices (Haugh unit and yolk factor) by quadratic polynomial step regression (QPSR). The prediction models for Haugh unit and yolk factor indicated a good prediction performance. The Haugh unit model had a standard error of prediction of 3.74 and correlation coefficient 0.91; the yolk factor model had a 0.02 SEP and 0.93 correlation coefficient between predicted and measured values respectively.

Microcracks in Eggs

An experimental program of mechanical testing has shown that microcracks initiate in hens' eggs at loads less than that necessary to cause total structural failure. In contact loading, computational modeling and numerical analysis show that very high stress levels develop on the inner surface of the eggshell as it conforms to a hard contact surface. This causes a series of microcracks to initiate at the inner surface of the shell and radiate out from the load site. A series of concentric circumferential microcracks also develop beneath the cuticle from the edge of the contact zone. Calculations relating to the eggshells' dynamic response indicate that microcracks have a little effect on the structural stiffness and resonant frequencies of the egg. As a result, microcracks are unlikely to be detected by online crack detection systems, which rely on mechanical excitation. Eggs in retail outlets are likely to contain microcracks as a result of insults experienced during the collection, grading, and packing processes. Because the eggshell forms the first line of defense against potentially pathogenic microorganisms entering the egg contents, microcracks could potentially compromise egg safety.

Influence of eggshell condensation on eggshell penetration and whole egg contamination with Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis

Shells of agar-filled and whole eggs were inoculated with 10(3) to 10(4) CFU of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis per eggshell. The agar-filled eggs were used to study bacterial eggshell penetration, and the whole egg results were used to characterize contamination of the egg contents. In each group, half of the eggs were stored for 21 days at 20 degrees C and 60% relative humidity (RH), and the other half was stored for 24 h at 6 degrees C and then for 20 days at 20 degrees C. The latter conditions resulted in condensation on the eggshell for 30 min from the moment the eggs were placed in the 20 degrees C chamber. Taking into account the ages at which hens were studied (39, 53, and 67 weeks), an average of 62% of the eggshells with condensate were penetrated compared with 43% for the control group; this difference was significant (P < 0.01). No significant difference in whole egg contamination was found; 18% of the control eggs were contaminated compared with 22% of the condensate eggs. Whole egg contamination was significantly higher for eggs from the hens at an older age (67 weeks). This difference probably was not due to a higher penetration potential because differences were not observed for the corresponding agar-filled eggs. Condensation on the eggshell seemed to encourage bacterial penetration of the eggshell but had a smaller impact on whole egg contamination.