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Winchell LJ, Ross JJ, Wells MJM, Fonoll X, Norton JW, Bell KY. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances thermal destruction at water resource recovery facilities: A state of the science review. WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH : A RESEARCH PUBLICATION OF THE WATER ENVIRONMENT FEDERATION 2021; 93:826-843. [PMID: 33190313 PMCID: PMC8375574 DOI: 10.1002/wer.1483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a recalcitrant group of chemicals and can be found throughout the environment. They often collect in wastewater systems with virtually no degradation prior to environmental discharge. Some PFAS partitions to solids captured in wastewater treatment which require further processing. Of all the commonly applied solids treatment technologies, incineration offers the only possibility to completely destroy PFAS. Little is known about the fate of PFAS through incineration, in particular, for the systems employed in water resource recovery facilities (WRRF). This review covers available research on the fate of PFAS through incineration systems with a focus on sewage sludge incinerators. This research indicates that at least some PFAS destruction will occur with incineration approaches used at WRRFs. Furthermore, PFAS in flue gas, ash, or water streams used for incinerator pollution control may be undetectable. Future research involving full-scale fate studies will provide insight on the efficacy of PFAS destruction through incineration and whether other compounds of concern are generated. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Thermal processing is the only commercial approach available to destroy PFAS. Thermal degradation conditions required for destruction of PFAS during incineration processes are discussed. Fate of PFAS through water resource recovery facility incineration technologies remains unclear. Other thermal technologies such as smoldering combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and hydrothermal liquefaction provide promise but are in developmental phases.
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Januszkiewicz AJ, Bazar MA, Crouse LCB, Chapman MA, Hodges SE, McCormick SJ, O'Neill AJ. Morbidity and mortality resulting from acute inhalation exposures to hydrogen fluoride and carbonyl fluoride in rats. Inhal Toxicol 2018; 30:114-123. [PMID: 29764242 DOI: 10.1080/08958378.2018.1465494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Experiments were undertaken to compare morbidity and mortality from brief inhalation exposures to high levels of hydrogen fluoride (HF) and carbonyl fluoride (COF2). METHODS Rats from both sexes were exposed for durations of 5 and 10 min to nominal concentrations of 10,000 to 57,000 ppm HF or 500 to 10,000 ppm COF2. Respiration was monitored before, during, and after exposure. Animals were observed up to 6 days post-exposure. Terminal blood samples were collected for routine clinical chemistry and hematology. Post-mortem lung fluoride concentrations and lung weights were measured, and gross pathology noted. RESULTS Both gases produced respiratory depression independent of concentration or exposure duration with minute ventilation decreasing to approximately 50% of baseline. Estimated mixed-gender HF and COF2 10-min LC50's were 48,661 ppm and 1083 ppm, respectively. HF mortalities were generally delayed 3 to 4 days post-exposure, while COF2 mortalities occurred during or briefly after exposure. Lung fluoride levels increased with COF2 dose, though elevated lung weights occurred only at the mid-level exposures. Lung weights were unaffected in the HF-exposed animals, and their lung fluoride concentrations were variable. Clinical chemistry and hematology had few consistent trends with the exception of hemoconcentration primarily in HF-exposed males. These short-term exposure experiments conclude that COF2 is nearly 45 times more lethal than HF in rats. CONCLUSIONS These experiments suggest that hydrolysis to HF cannot solely explain COF2 toxicity. Although HF and COF2 may have common injury mechanisms, they are expressed to markedly different degrees and temporal occurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adolph J Januszkiewicz
- a Toxicity Evaluation Division , Army Public Health Center , Aberdeen Proving Ground , MD , USA
| | - Matthew A Bazar
- a Toxicity Evaluation Division , Army Public Health Center , Aberdeen Proving Ground , MD , USA
| | - Lee C B Crouse
- a Toxicity Evaluation Division , Army Public Health Center , Aberdeen Proving Ground , MD , USA
| | - Michael A Chapman
- b U.S. Army Aberdeen Test and Evaluation Center , Aberdeen Proving Ground , MD , USA
| | - Steven E Hodges
- c Army TARDEC Ground Systems Survivability, Alion Science and Technology , Santa Barbara , CA , USA
| | - Steven J McCormick
- d Development and Engineering Center , U.S. Army Tank Automotive Research , Warren , MI , USA
| | - Arthur J O'Neill
- a Toxicity Evaluation Division , Army Public Health Center , Aberdeen Proving Ground , MD , USA
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Sajid M, Ilyas M. PTFE-coated non-stick cookware and toxicity concerns: a perspective. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:23436-23440. [PMID: 28913736 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0095-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
PTFE is used as an inner coating material in non-stick cookware. This unique polymer coating prevents food from sticking in the pans during the cooking process. Such cookware is also easy to wash. At normal cooking temperatures, PTFE-coated cookware releases various gases and chemicals that present mild to severe toxicity. Only few studies describe the toxicity of PTFE but without solid conclusions. The toxicity and fate of ingested PTFE coatings are also not understood. Moreover, the emerging, persistent, and well-known toxic environmental pollutant PFOA is also used in the synthesis of PTFA. There are some reports where PFOA was detected in the gas phase released from the cooking utensils under normal cooking temperatures. Due to toxicity concerns, PFOA has been replaced with other chemicals such as GenX, but these new alternatives are also suspected to have similar toxicity. Therefore, more extensive and systematic research efforts are required to respond the prevailing dogma about human exposure and toxic effects to PTFE, PFOA, and GenX and other alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Sajid
- Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Muhammad Ilyas
- Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia
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Nold JB, Petrali JP, Wall HC, Moore DH. Progressive Pulmonary Pathology of Two Organofluorine Compounds in Rats. Inhal Toxicol 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/08958379109145279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Christe KO, Hegge J, Hoge B, Haiges R. Convenient access to trifluoromethanol. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2007; 46:6155-8. [PMID: 17623289 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200701823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karl O Christe
- Loker Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1661, USA.
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Tsai P, Guo Y, Chen J, Shieh H. An Integrated Approach to Initiate Preventive Strategies for Workers Exposed to Teflon Pyrolytic Gases in a Plastic Industry. J Occup Health 2006. [DOI: 10.1539/joh.42.297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Perng‐Jy Tsai
- Department of Environmental and Occupational HealthMedical College, National Cheng Kung University
| | - Yue‐Liang Guo
- Department of Environmental and Occupational HealthMedical College, National Cheng Kung University
| | - Jin‐Luh Chen
- Tainan Science‐based Industrial Park Development OfficeNational Science Council, Executive Yuan
| | - Hong‐Yong Shieh
- Southern Labor Inspectory BureauCouncil of Labor Affairs, Executive Yuan
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Wang H, Ding R, Ruan J, Yuan B, Sun X, Zhang X, Yu S, Qu W. Perfluoroisobutylene‐Induced Acute Lung Injury and Mortality are Heralded by Neutrophil Sequestration and Accumulation. J Occup Health 2006. [DOI: 10.1539/joh.43.331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hemei Wang
- Institute of Pharmacology and ToxicologyAcademy of Military Medical Sciences
| | - Rigao Ding
- Institute of Pharmacology and ToxicologyAcademy of Military Medical Sciences
| | - Jinxiu Ruan
- Institute of Pharmacology and ToxicologyAcademy of Military Medical Sciences
| | - Benli Yuan
- Institute of Pharmacology and ToxicologyAcademy of Military Medical Sciences
| | - Xiaohong Sun
- Institute of Pharmacology and ToxicologyAcademy of Military Medical Sciences
| | - Xiancheng Zhang
- Institute of Pharmacology and ToxicologyAcademy of Military Medical Sciences
| | - Shouzhong Yu
- Institute of Pharmacology and ToxicologyAcademy of Military Medical Sciences
| | - Wensheng Qu
- Institute of Pharmacology and ToxicologyAcademy of Military Medical Sciences
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Laster MJ, Eger EI, Cherry WR, Gong D. Fractional distillation of acid contaminants from sevoflurane. Anesth Analg 2000; 91:985-8. [PMID: 11004061 DOI: 10.1097/00000539-200010000-00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
On two occasions, sevoflurane distributed for clinical practice has been found to be contaminated with compounds thought to include hydrogen fluoride (HF) and silicon tetrafluoride (SiF(4)). Both compounds can produce pulmonary injury. However, injury would require fractional distillation of the compounds during the course of sevoflurane vaporization. We hypothesized that such distillation would occur and that the compounds would vaporize more rapidly than would sevoflurane. Thus, we tested whether fractional distillation occurs during vaporization of sevoflurane containing HF or SiF(4), or from sevoflurane containing HF converted to other compounds by contact with glass. Vaporization of < 10% of the sevoflurane distilled 65%-99% of these compounds, SiF(4) distilling most rapidly, HF (converted to other acidic compounds, including SiF(4)) distilling nearly as rapidly, and HF slowest. Nuclear magnetic resonance studies indicated that HF interaction with glass changed all HF to three other compounds, one being SiF(4) and the others being unknown. HF and SiF4 distill from sevoflurane more rapidly than sevoflurane is vaporized. Measurement of acidity after sevoflurane administration may not reveal a previous presence of such contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Laster
- Department of Anesthesia, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0464, USA
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Burkhart KK, Britt A, Petrini G, O'Donnell S, Donovan JW. Pulmonary toxicity following exposure to an aerosolized leather protector. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY. CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY 1996; 34:21-4. [PMID: 8632508 DOI: 10.3109/15563659609020228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An aerosol spray for leather protection was reformulated to remove trichloroethane. The new formulation contained isobutane, n-heptane, ethyl acetate and fluoroaliphatics. RETROSPECTIVE REVIEW Thirty-nine patients reported symptoms to the regional poison center. Respiratory symptoms developed within hours of exposure. Most symptoms resolved within two days. Abnormal pulmonary function tests, including obstructive disease or diminished diffusing capacity, were demonstrated in three of the four tested patients. CONCLUSIONS The mechanism for the pulmonary toxicity has not been determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- K K Burkhart
- Center for Emergency Medical Services, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, USA
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Moore DH, Wall HG. The effects of exercise following exposure to bis(trifluoromethyl) disulfide. Drug Chem Toxicol 1991; 14:343-52. [PMID: 1811957 DOI: 10.3109/01480549109011638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Bis(trifluoromethyl) disulfide (TFD) was originally designed for use as an agricultural fumigant. Inhalation of toxic doses of TFD results in varying degrees of pulmonary edema. The purpose of this study was to determine if exhaustive exercise would potentiate the toxic effects of TFD. One group of treadmill-acclimated rats was exercised to exhaustion following a 10-minute whole-body exposure to TFD. A second group was similarly exposed but not exercised. Two other groups of rats were sham exposed; one was exercised while one remained sedentary following the sham exposure. Twenty-four hours after exposure, the animals were sacrificed; the lungs were removed and weighed, and a portion was collected for histopathologic examination. The remaining lung tissue was allowed to dry to constant weight. There was no difference in endurance times between exposed and sham-exposed rats. There was a significant increase in the amount of pulmonary edema and associated pulmonary pathology in rats exercised following exposure to TFD. Eleven of twelve animals exercised following exposure to TFD and three of twelve animals which remained sedentary following exposure died by 24 hours. The degree of pulmonary pathology in all rats exposed to TFD was profound.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Moore
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21010-5425
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Zook BC, Malek DE, Kenney RA. Pathologic findings in rats following inhalation of combustion products of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Toxicology 1983; 26:25-36. [PMID: 6829028 DOI: 10.1016/0300-483x(83)90053-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Adult male Fischer 344 rats received single 30-min exposures to the aerosolized products of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) heated to 595 degrees C. The concentrations of thermal degradation products of PTFE were at the LC50 dose of 0.045 mg/l for most rats, but some rats received doses ranging from 0.005 to 5.025 mg/l. Serial measurements of cardiopulmonary function were obtained and will be published subsequently. Necropsies were performed at 0, 2, 12, 24 and 36 h post-exposure, and a few rats were killed between 2 and 17 days. Signs of respiratory impairment were followed by death in some rats. Pathologic findings included focal hemorrhages, edema and fibrin deposition in the lungs. With time focal interstitial thickenings developed due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia of alveolar cells, and macrophages accumulated in alveoli. Thrombosis of pulmonary capillaries was common. Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) occurred in 53% of test rats; its incidence and severity were positively related to the degree of pulmonary damage. Renal infarcts were common due to DIC. No lesions were seen in kidneys or other tissue (except lung and thymus) unless they were affected with DIC. Thymic lymphocytes underwent necrosis in many test and some vehical (warm air) control rats, possibly due to stress. The finding of DIC in PTFE combustion product exposure has not been reported to our knowledge. The toxicity of the thermal degradation products of PTFE requires further study, especially relative to induction of DIC.
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Autian J. The new field of plastics toxicology--methods and results. CRC CRITICAL REVIEWS IN TOXICOLOGY 1973; 2:1-40. [PMID: 4199149 DOI: 10.1080/10408447309163830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Scheel LD, McMillan L, Phipps FC. Biochemical changes associated with toxic exposrues to polytetrafluoroethylene pyrolysis products. AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE ASSOCIATION JOURNAL 1968; 29:49-53. [PMID: 5667191 DOI: 10.1080/00028896809342980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Waritz RS, Kwon BK. The inhalation toxicity of products of polytetrafluoroethylene heated below 500 degrees centigrade. AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE ASSOCIATION JOURNAL 1968; 29:19-26. [PMID: 5667186 DOI: 10.1080/00028896809342976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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