Children's behaviour and the design of school furniture

Primary school learners' movement during class time: perceptions of educators in the Western Cape, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Over the last decade, the efficacy of in-classroom movement to reduce sedentary behaviour has been mainly conducted in high-income, developed countries. To date, there have been no published reports on the perceptions of principals and teachers regarding learners' movement during class time to inform the implementation of classroom-based movement strategies to reduce sedentariness in South Africa.

METHODS

A sample of primary school principals and grades 5 and 6 teachers from a range of socio-economic categories participated in this exploratory, descriptive qualitative study in the metro central district of the Western Cape Education Department in South Africa. Transcripts of individual depth interviews (IDIs) with principals and focus group discussions (FGDs) with teachers were coded using Atlast ti 9* software for qualitative analysis.

RESULTS

Thirteen principals (13 IDIs) and 24 teachers (6 FGDs) participated in the study. Two main factors influencing in-classroom movement, namely teacher-related and structural factors, were identified. The teacher-related factors pertained to their classroom management practice, knowledge and beliefs about sitting, and management style influenced their role in delivering the curriculum and creating a classroom environment conducive for learning. Classroom factors pertained to classroom size, the number of learners in the class and the ergonomic utility of traditional classroom desks. Institutional expectations and acceptance of learners' behaviour, and teachers' practice were also notable contributing factors that influenced learners' movement during class time.

CONCLUSION

Emerging evidence about the efficacy of in-classroom movement on sedentary behaviour and learning outcomes challenges traditional teacher practice that sitting is essential for the delivery of the curriculum and for creating an optimal learning environment. Teacher training about the behaviour control utility of in-classroom movement, and school management and policy supportive of in-classroom movement may encourage fidelity to in-classroom movement strategies.

Computer-aided ergonomic analysis of primary school furniture dimensions

The objective of this study was to determine the match level of school furniture with student dimensions and conduct a pilot study to examine practicality of a computer-aided ergonomic analysis software with a Motion Capture System (MoCap) for the purpose of improving school furniture design process in terms of determining optimum dimensions. The research involved measuring the anthropometric data of 218 voluntary primary school students in Mugla, Turkiye and the dimensions of the existing school desks they use. The compatibility between the students' anthropometry and the existing school desks were analysed by using reference equations. Computer-aided ergonomic analysis performed only for seat and desk height. Four virtual human model and ten different school desks in various dimensions were created and evaluated according to joint reaction forces and muscle activations in three different postures by using Anybody Modelling System (AMS). The results of compatibility level showed that there were significant incompatibilities between the students' anthropometry and the existing school desks, with 80% of seat heights and 96% of desk heights being too high. Overall, in order to assess the optimal school desk dimensions, ergonomic analyses provided data indicating reduced joint reaction forces and muscle activations within the musculoskeletal system for the seat and desk height dimensions determined using reference equations. Also, the findings from the ergonomic analysis revealed valuable information on how even minor dimensional modifications to school desks can affect the musculoskeletal system.Practitioner summary: The study examined the impact of simulating student-school desk matching in various sizes and postures within a virtual environment using computer-aided ergonomic analysis software. The analysis focused on specific local areas of the musculoskeletal system to determine optimum school desk dimensions. The results indicated that the software has a potential in facilitating school furniture design based on user's anthropometric measurements. However, a multidisciplinary team is required to make more detailed analysis.

Discrepancy between pupils’ body and classroom furniture in elementary schools: A case study in the Republic of Kosovo

BACKGROUND: Primary school children spend quite a lot of time sitting in classrooms. For this reason, it is necessary to make a scientific analysis of children’s body dimensions and compare them with the furniture dimensions where they sit. OBJECTIVES: The main aim of this paper is to present anthropometric data for pupils in primary schools in the Republic of Kosovo and give recommendations for school furniture design. METHODS: Measurements were made in the public schools of four different regions in the Republic of Kosovo. The study includes 720 children from 12 different elementary schools with first and fifth graders (6–11 years old).- Twelve body parts were measured: Stature, sitting height, shoulder height, lower leg length, hip breadth, elbow height, buttock-popliteal length, thigh clearance, eye height, shoulder breadth, and knee height. The descriptive data are calculated in terms of average, standard deviation, and 5th, 50th and 95th percentile. RESULTS: We recommend that the competent authorities in the Republic of Kosovo consider improving the infrastructure of primary schools in terms of furniture size according to the findings presented in this study. CONCLUSIONS: The information presented in this paper on pupils’ anthropometry and the proposed dimensions for school furniture can be used by various bodies in Kosovo including, but not limited to: Ministry of Education Science and Technology,Ministry of Trade and Industry of Kosovo and furniture manufacturing industries as basic information for suitable furniture design for primary school children, as well as school principals to help in furniture selection.

Post-COVID-19 ergonomic school furniture design under fuzzy logic

BACKGROUND

Because of wrong sitting position, children have back-pain and related musculoskeletal pain (MPD). Due to inappropriate designed class furniture by not taking into account the children's anthropometric measurements have negative effect on children musculoskeletal systems. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic crisis has changed the furniture industry's production trends.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to develop a new fuzzy based design of ergonomic-oriented classroom furniture for primary school students considering the measured anthropometric dimensions of students' safety, health, well-being, i.e. ergonomic criteria, socio-psychological aspect and post-COVID policies.

METHODS

In the study 2049 number of primary school students are assessed considering COVID-19 pandemic policies and their static anthropometric dimensions were measured between 7-10-year-old (between 1st-4th grade students) and descriptive statistics of children among their ages and genders are calculated; mean, standard deviation, percentiles. The data collected from the students were analyzed quantitatively by using Significance Analysis: Mann-Whitney U test statistic, t-test, Regression Analysis and one-way ANOVA. In the study interviews with experts are performed and fuzzy mathematical model (by using fuzzy-AHP, fuzzy-TOPSIS and fuzzy-VIKOR) is developed to calculate Turkey's three schools' furniture.

RESULTS

Results showed statistically significant differences between two genders. And it is observed that the seating bench height is too high for primary school students and lower than the height of the classroom's blackboard from the floor. Fuzzy Multi Criteria Decision Making Method's (FMCDM) results show that primary school students' ergonomic classroom furniture should be mainly designed by considering "COVID-19 Criteria", "Ergonomic Criteria" and "Socio-Psychological Aspect". Students' existing seating benches and tables are changed by considering post-COVID policies/protocols, Ergonomic Criteria and Socio-Psychological Aspect. And a new seating bench/chair and table's dimensions is proposed in the study.

CONCLUSIONS

Children study at school for long periods and their activities involve long periods of time on their desks in schools. As per the results of the study, it can be concluded that school management must consider the genders, ages of students and take into account the post-COVID policies/protocols while procuring the classroom furniture. The COVID-19 pandemic is the single largest event to have affected children globally in their access to school in recent times; estimates suggest that over 85%of the world's total enrolled learners, 1.5 billion children and youths, have been affected. The coronavirus pandemic also creates dramatic changes for the school furniture.

Data-Driven Design Solution of a Mismatch Problem between the Specifications of the Multi-Function Console in a Jangbogo Class Submarine and the Anthropometric Dimensions of South Koreans Users

The naval multi-function console provides various types of information to the operator. It is equipment that is key for submarine navigation, and fatal human errors can occur due to the mismatch between the console specifications and the operator’s body size. This study proposes a method for deriving console specifications suitable for the body size of Korean users. The seat height, seat width, seat depth, upper edge of backrest, and worktable height were selected as the target design variables. Using six anthropometric dimensions, a mismatch equation for each target design variable was developed. Anthropometric measures of 2027 Korean males were obtained, and the optimal specifications of the console were derived via an algorithmic approach. As a result, the match rate, considering all the target design variables, was improved from 2.57% to 76.96%. In previous studies and standards, the optimal console specifications were suggested based on the anthropometric data of a specific percentile of users, and it was impossible to quantitatively confirm the suitability of the console design for the target users. However, the method used in this study calculated the match rate using the mismatch equation devised for comfortable use of the console and a large amount of anthropometric data that represented the user population, and therefore the improvement effect of the recommended specification can be directly identified when compared to the current specifications. Moreover, the methodology and results of this study could be used for deciding the specifications of multi-function consoles in several fields, including nuclear power plants or disaster situation rooms.

Myoelectric Activity of Individual Lumbar Erector Spinae Muscles Variation by Differing Seat Pan Depth

Background:

The chair influences the position of the user in relation to his or her devices. Prolonged static sitting is a frequently mentioned risk factor for low back pain. Seat design, thus, plays an important role in the study of human sitting. Quantitative information is needed on what happens to body when one sits in chairs with different seat depth.

Objective:

To determine the myoelectric activity (EMG) of individual lumbar erector spinae muscles after sitting in chairs with different seat pan depth.

Methods:

EMG recordings were taken using surface electrodes placed on the lumbar erector spine muscles of 25 normal, volunteer subjects. EMG recordings for muscle activity were made while the study participants were in a comfortable position and performed the required tasks. The experiments investigated with 3 seat depths according to the 5^th, 50^th and 95^th percentiles of the buttock popliteal length. The recorded EMG data were normalized to the maximal voluntary contraction. The mean EMG recording was calculated for each of the 3 chairs tested. A mixed model was used to assess the differences among the situations.

Results:

A significant (p<0.05) difference was observed between the mean EMG recordings for the 3 tested seat pan depths. EMG activity was higher in seats with the 5^th and 95^th percentiles compared with that for the seat with 50^th percentile of buttock popliteal length depth.

Conclusion:

The seat pan depth used during a comfortable position has a significant effect on the level of myoelectric activity in the lumbar erector spinal muscles. The finding of this study may contribute to our understanding of the biomechanics of sitting.

Determining optimum seat depth using comfort and discomfort assessments

The aim of this study was to determine optimum seat depth using subjective assessments. Comfort and discomfort evaluation, as an ergonomic subjective method, was used to find the optimum seat depth. A total of 36 university students rated the comfort and discomfort of six different seat depths (including 32.0, 37.0, 42.0, 47.0 and 52.0 cm which covered the buttock-popliteal length [BPL] range as well as 40.2 cm representing the 5th percentile of the BPL) during a 90-min period using a chair evaluation checklist. The results showed that a seat depth of 40.2 cm (equivalent to the 5th percentile of the BPL) was more comfortable and caused less discomfort ratings after 90 min compared to other experimental seat depths. The findings suggest that an appropriate seat depth for the studied population can be recommended based on the 5th percentile of the BPL as an anthropometric criterion.

A literature review of anthropometric studies of school students for ergonomics purposes: Are accuracy, precision and reliability being considered?

BACKGROUND

Despite offering many benefits, direct manual anthropometric measurement method can be problematic due to their vulnerability to measurement errors.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this literature review was to determine, whether or not the currently published anthropometric studies of school children, related to ergonomics, mentioned or evaluated the variables precision, reliability or accuracy in the direct manual measurement method.

METHODS

Two bibliographic databases, and the bibliographic references of all the selected papers were used for finding relevant published papers in the fields considered in this study.

RESULTS

Forty-six (46) studies met the criteria previously defined for this literature review. However, only ten (10) studies mentioned at least one of the analyzed variables, and none has evaluated all of them. Only reliability was assessed by three papers. Moreover, in what regards the factors that affect precision, reliability and accuracy, the reviewed papers presented large differences. This was particularly clear in the instruments used for the measurements, which were not consistent throughout the studies. Additionally, it was also clear that there was a lack of information regarding the evaluators' training and procedures for anthropometric data collection, which are assumed to be the most important issues that affect precision, reliability and accuracy.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the review of the literature, it was possible to conclude that the considered anthropometric studies had not focused their attention to the analysis of precision, reliability and accuracy of the manual measurement methods. Hence, and with the aim of avoiding measurement errors and misleading data, anthropometric studies should put more efforts and care on testing measurement error and defining the procedures used to collect anthropometric data.

Relevance of adding a triangular dynamic cushion on a traditional chair: A 3D-analysis of seated schoolchildren

BACKGROUND

Low back pain is highly prevalent in the general population and is even reported as early as at primary school. A poor sitting position has been suggested as an etiologic factor. This study analysed, in primary schoolchildren, the influence of a triangular dynamic cushion that aims to help children maintain their physiological lumbar lordosis and to induce movement to reduce the static effect of the sitting position.

METHODS

Thirty 8-year-old children took part in this study. A 3D analysis combined with electromyography was used to evaluate the biomechanics and the related muscle activation in two sitting positions (with and without a triangular cushion on a horizontal stool) during a 15-minute working task. In addition, the force of the feet on the ground was assessed with a force plate.

FINDINGS

The cushion improved the trunk-thighs angle, lumbar lordosis, anterior pelvis tilt, and feet support on the ground (p<0.0001). In addition, sitting on the cushion appeared to be more dynamic (p<0.05) and induced a decrease of the lumbar paravertebral muscle activity (p<0.01).

INTERPRETATION

Sitting on a dynamic triangular cushion tends to favour the "ideal" siting position usually described in the literature and to decrease the level of paravertebral muscle recruitment. Seeing that sitting position is a risk factor to develop low back pain, the cushion could be a solution to prevent it.

The influence of school furniture on students' performance and physical responses: results of a systematic review

The purpose of this study was to determine, using a systematic review, whether the design and/or dimensions of school furniture affect the students' physical responses and/or their performance. Of the review studies, 64% presented positive results, i.e. proven effects; 24% presented negative effects or no change/effect; and the remaining 12% showed an unclear effect. The compatibility between school furniture dimensions and students' anthropometric characteristics was identified as a key factor for improving some students' physical responses. Design characteristics such as high furniture, sit-stand furniture, and tilt tables and seats also present positive effects. Finally, we concluded that further research should be conducted exploring various aspects of those variables, particularly focusing on more objective measures complemented by controlled and prospective design. Practitioner Summary: A systematic review of the literature presents a clearly positive effect of school furniture dimensions on students' performance and physical responses. Similar results appeared when school furniture design was tested. However, studying the effects of design and dimensions together produced an unclear positive effect.

The Occurrence of Back Pain in School Children and Exposure to Risk Factors in Schools can they be Measured?

Back pain is a significant financial burden on industry and the economy, but more importantly it is the cause of suffering and disability to countless individuals. Therefore if the symptoms and risk factors of back pain could be identified at an early stage, the opportunities for remedial action would be improved. The study aims to identify the extent of back pain experienced by 11 to 14 year old school children, and establish the intensity, duration and frequency of exposure to mechanical risk factors present in schools. The following criteria were formulated to meet the study objectives, The method should record the intensity, duration, and frequency of the exposure, be continuous, unobtrusive, valid, reliable and feasible. None of the existing methods satisfied all the criteria, therefore new methods must be developed, or those methods which came closest to fulfilling the criteria, might be adapted to suit the participants and the research setting.

Effect of Cognitive Load on Seating Posture in Children

Although children are frequently required to sit upright, it is often difficult to maintain this posture when performing cognitive tasks. Information about the relationship between a cognitive tasks and postural seating control is important for children to complete tasks more effectively. To determine the muscle activity and body sway of children in a seated posture while performing a cognitive task, changes in muscle activity and center of pressure (COP) were recorded while 4(th) grade children performed arithmetic tasks. Electromyography was recorded from the internal oblique and lumbar multifidus muscles, and the COP was recorded using a baropodometer placed on the stool. These variables were measured during easy (EA) and difficult (DA) arithmetic tasks. EMG activity decreased during the EA and DA tasks, while the COP was displaced in the DA task. The results of the arithmetic tasks were not related to the EMG or COP changes. Attention to maintain a seated posture may be reduced when children perform cognitive tasks. Therefore, it may be better to allow children to alter their posture especially when they are performing difficult tasks. In this research, we only used arithmetic tasks as the cognitive exercise, and therefore, other types of tasks should be examined.

[Nonspecific low back pain in young adults: associated risk factors]

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to evaluate potential risk factors related to low back pain in the daily routines of two sets of youths: individuals complaining of chronic low back pain and a control group.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 198 university-age students (male and female) aged between 18 and 29. In accordance with back pain diagnoses, they were separated into two groups: with or without nonspecific chronic low back pain. Both groups were evaluated by a "blinded" observer with no knowledge to the presence or otherwise of lower back pain. Questionnaires concerning clinical-demographic characteristics, life style, quality of life (SF-36 questionnaire), pain visual analogical scales (VAS), and physical examination were applied.

RESULTS

A univariate analysis showed a statistically significant association (P<0.05) with the presence of low back pain and some factors. There was a negative association between low back pain and the following variables: BMI, health self-assessment, VAS and some SF-36 domains (physical functioning, body pain, general health, vitality, social functioning). There was a positive correlation with the following variables: global pain by VAS, presence of diffuse pain and number of tender points. However, the multivariate analysis showed statistically significant correlations (P<0.05) between low back pain and few variables: global pain VAS and number of tender points.

CONCLUSION

Some variables related to chronic diffuse pain and lower quality of life might be associated to chronic low back pain in young adults. However, longitudinal studies are necessary.

Student's Body Dimensions in Relation to Classroom Furniture

BACKGROUND

This study was carried out to investigate the fit between university student's anthropometry and classroom furniture dimensions.

METHOD

In this cross-sectional and descriptive-analyzing study conducted in 2012, a total of 194 students (aged 18 through 30 years), were recruited randomly from Tabriz University of Medical Science community. The body size of each student was assessed using anthropometric measurements including shoulder height, elbow height, popliteal height, buttock-popliteal length, hip breadth and distance between elbows. Combinational equations defined the acceptable furni-ture dimensions according to anthropometry and match percentages were computed, according to either the existing situations assuming that they could use the most appropriate of the sizes available.

RESULTS

Desk and seat height were higher than the accepted limits for most students (92.5% and 98.4%, respectively), while seat depth was appropriate for only 84.6% of students. The data indicate a mismatch between the students' bodily dimensions and the classroom furniture available to them. The chairs are too high and too deep and desks are also too high for the pupils. This situation may have negative effects on the sitting posture of the students especially when reading and writing.

CONCLUSION

High mismatch percentages were found between furniture and stu-dents' anthropometry. The results confirm that furniture for university students should be selected and designed busied on their anthropometric dimensions.

Classroom furniture and anthropometric characteristics of Iranian high school students: proposed dimensions based on anthropometric data

The study evaluated the potential mismatch between classroom furniture dimensions and anthropometric characteristics of 978 Iranian high school students (498 girls, 480 boys), aged 15-18 years. Nine anthropometric measurements (stature, sitting height, sitting shoulder height, popliteal height, hip breadth, elbow-seat height, buttock-popliteal length, buttock-knee length and thigh clearance) and five dimensions from the existing classroom furniture were measured and then compared together (using match criterion equations) to identify any potential mismatch between them. The results indicated a considerable mismatch between body dimensions of the students and the existing classroom furniture, with seat height (60.9%), seat width (54.7%) and desktop height (51.7%) being the furniture dimensions with a higher level of mismatch. The levels of mismatch varied between the high-school grade levels and between genders, indicating their special requirements and possible problems. The proposed dimensions of the classroom furniture more appropriate for the students were given. This additional information on students' anthropometry can be used by local furniture industries as a starting point for designing more appropriate furniture for school children, or used by schools to aid in furniture selection.

Neural network and multiple linear regression to predict school children dimensions for ergonomic school furniture design

The current study investigates the possibility of obtaining the anthropometric dimensions, critical to school furniture design, without measuring all of them. The study first selects some anthropometric dimensions that are easy to measure. Two methods are then used to check if these easy-to-measure dimensions can predict the dimensions critical to the furniture design. These methods are multiple linear regression and neural networks. Each dimension that is deemed necessary to ergonomically design school furniture is expressed as a function of some other measured anthropometric dimensions. Results show that out of the five dimensions needed for chair design, four can be related to other dimensions that can be measured while children are standing. Therefore, the method suggested here would definitely save time and effort and avoid the difficulty of dealing with students while measuring these dimensions. In general, it was found that neural networks perform better than multiple linear regression in the current study.

School furniture match to students' anthropometry in the Gaza Strip

This study aimed at comparing primary school students' anthropometry to the dimensions of school furniture and determining whether the furniture used matches the students' anthropometry. A sample of 600 male students, whose ages were between 6 and 11 years, from five primary schools in the Gaza Strip governorates participated in the study. Several students' body dimensions were measured. The dimensions measured included elbow-seat height, shoulder height, knee height, popliteal height and buttock-popliteal length. Measurements of the dimensions of the classroom furniture indicated that there was a considerable mismatch between the students' body dimensions and the classroom furniture. The mismatches in seat height, seat depth and desk height occurred for 99% of the students, while the mismatch for the back rest height was only 35%. Two design specifications were proposed in order to decrease the mismatch percentage based on the data obtained. The two proposed designs showed a considerable improvement in the match percentages as compared to the existing design. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: Having identified mismatches between the dimensions of the school furniture used in primary schools in the Gaza Strip, two new design specifications are proposed and shown to improve match with the students' anthropometric dimensions. The findings of the study are also an important addition to local knowledge on school children's anthropometry.

A cross-sectional study of self-reported back and neck pain among English schoolchildren and associated physical and psychological risk factors

This study set out to identify the associations between ergonomics and other factors with back and neck pain among schoolchildren. Self-reported questionnaires were used to record health outcomes and potential risk factors in state schools. Six hundred and seventy-nine schoolchildren from Surrey in the United Kingdom aged 11-14 years took part. Twenty-seven percent of children reported having neck pain, 18% reported having upper back pain, and 22% reported having low back pain. A forward stepwise logistic regression was performed with pain categories the dependent variables. Neck pain was significantly associated with school furniture features, emotional and conduct problems, family history of low back pain and previous treatment for musculoskeletal disorders. Upper back pain was associated with school bag weight (3.4-4.45 kg), school furniture features, emotional problems and previous treatment for musculoskeletal disorders. Low back pain was associated with school furniture features, emotional problems, family history and previous injury or accident. It is important to recognise the influence of physical, psychological and family factors in children's pain.

Sitting and standing postures are corrected by adjustable furniture with lowered muscle tension in high-school students

This study compared the effect of 24 months of adjustable school desks and chairs usage (the intervention) and traditional non-adjustable usage (the control condition) on sitting and standing postures, muscle strength, classroom muscle tension, pain and learning in 15 (8 female and 7 male) high-school students and 15 anthropometrically and gender matched control students from neighbouring schools. It was assessed whether any responses took place after growth cessation. In comparison with controls, the intervention group of students' sitting postures standing kyphosis, scoliosis and lordosis became significantly better, both before and after growth cessation. Trunk muscle strength increased in the intervention students whose muscle tension during classes fell significantly in the trapezius and lumbar muscles, whereas in control students' lumbar tension increased. Headache and low-back pain correlated with neck-shoulder pain and trapezius muscle tension. Intervention students reported that they experienced benefits from the adjustable tables and chairs. They also received significantly better overall marks than the controls at the end of high school. It is concluded that the adjustable school desks and chairs promoted better sitting and standing postures, increased muscle strength, alleviated pain and appeared to be associated with better overall academic marks.

Definition of sizes for the design of school furniture for Bogotá schools based on anthropometric criteria

The current paper deals with the definition of sizes for the design of school furniture for schools in Bogotá, Colombia, based on an analysis of available anthropometric data on Latin American children. State-of-the-art anthropometric, national and international standards were considered, in order to define the anthropometric variables that were to be used for defining the furniture. Matrices relating age and specific anthropometric dimensions were constructed, as a visualization method for establishing the dimensional differences between children of the same age and the ranges that should be covered by the items of furniture. Dimensional data were grouped by establishing the minimum sizes and general dimensions of furniture needed to cover the 5-95th percentile of school children between the ages of 5 and 18 years. The distribution of the furniture in the different school grades was also indicated. Apart from the need for an adequate match between child anthropometry and school furniture dimensions, this study shows the importance of a proper distribution of furniture sizes in the different school grades, as a complementary and decisive aspect to be considered in order to meet the heterogenic, anthropometrical requirements of children of the same age and school grade.

Classroom postures of 8-12 year old children

This study examined classroom postures of 8-12 year old school children in Flanders and related the outcomes to self-reported back or neck pain. Postural behaviours using the portable ergonomic observation (PEO) method and self-reported one-week back and neck pain were studied in 105 children from 41 different class groups. Pupils sat statically for 85% of the time, 28% of which the trunk was bent or flexed forward. For 9% of the time, children sat dynamically and for 36% they used a back rest. Children who spent more time sitting with a flexed trunk reported significantly more thoraco-lumbar pain compared to pain-free children and to children with cervical pain (p < 0.05). Children reporting pain stood for a longer period of time than pain-free children (p < 0.05). It is concluded that prolonged static kyphotic sitting without use of a backrest is common in elementary school children in Flanders.

Are the desks and chairs at school appropriate?

The aim of the current study was to find out how the measures of chairs and desks match with the anthropometrics of schoolchildren and how schoolchildren sit during a lesson in their classroom. This paper reports the baseline measurements of an intervention study. Participants of this study were 6th and 8th grade (12 and 14 year old) schoolchildren from two comprehensive schools in Finland (N = 101, 57 girls and 44 boys). The main outcome measures were the differences between desk height and elbow-floor height, and chair height and popliteal height. Forty-three participants were randomized for sitting posture analysis by video recordings. The study showed that desks were on average 13 cm above elbow-floor height and chairs 2 cm below popliteal height. For 56% of time participants sat with their backs flexed >20 degrees and/or rotated >45 degrees . For 70% of time they sat with their necks flexed >20 degrees or rotated >45 degrees. The results indicate that there is a mismatch between school furniture and the anthropometrics of schoolchildren. Schoolchildren sit in disadvantaged postures for a substantial part of school lessons.

Back posture education in elementary schoolchildren: a 2-year follow-up study

Within the scope of primary prevention regarding back functioning in children, research on the stability of intervention effects is indispensable. Along this line, the transition from childhood to adolescence is an important phase to evaluate the potential stability of intervention effects because of the typically mechanical and psychological demands related to adolescence. The main aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of a back education program at 2-year follow-up, in youngsters aged 13-14 years, on back posture knowledge, fear-avoidance beliefs and self-reported pain. An additional purpose was to evaluate which aspects of postural behavior were integrated in youngsters' lifestyles. At 2-year follow-up, the study sample included 94 secondary schoolchildren in the intervention group (mean age 13.3 +/- 0.8 years) and 101 controls (mean age 13.2 +/- 0.7 years). The back posture program that had been implemented for two school years consisted of back education and the stimulation of postural dynamism in the class through support and environmental changes. A questionnaire was completed comparable to the pretest, posttest and follow-up evaluations. The current study demonstrated at 2-year follow-up stability of the improved general (F = 1.590, ns) and specific (F = 0.049, ns) back posture knowledge in children who had received early back posture education. Back posture education did not result in increased fear-avoidance beliefs (F = 1.163, ns) or mounting back and/or neck pain reports (F = 0.001, ns). Based on self-reports for postural behavior, youngsters who had received the back posture program in the elementary school curriculum integrated crucial sitting and lifting principles conform to biomechanical favorable postural behavior. The steady intervention effects 2-year post-intervention demonstrated that intensive back posture education through the elementary school curriculum is effective till adolescence. Future research on the impact of early school-based back posture promotion in relation to the integration of back posture principles according to a biomechanical favorable lifestyle and back pain prevalence later in life is essential.

Anthropometric evaluation for primary school furniture design

Musculoskeletal symptoms are one of the top ten health problems among schoolchildren in Hong Kong. Whether or not these symptoms are related to school furniture has yet to be determined and published data on furniture size are lacking. The purpose of the study was to determine whether the design of furniture in schools is appropriate for children's anthropometry. A total of 214 volunteer subjects were recruited. This constituted 90% of the total number of primary 5 and 6 students in the studied school (i.e. those aged 10 and 13 years). The data collected included demographic information, data on perceived health and posture and body and furniture measurements. The girls' BMI was lower than that of the boys. The girls had longer lower limbs and wider hip breadth measurements in the standing position. This was similar in the sitting position. Almost none of the subjects had a chair with an appropriate seat height. Seat depth was found appropriate for large groups of students whether or not a large or small chair was used. Recommendations on the sizes of chairs and desks for boys and girls are discussed.

Match between school furniture dimensions and children's anthropometry

The purpose of the study was to examine whether school furniture dimensions match children's anthropometry. Children aged 6-18 years (n=274), divided into 3 groups on the basis of the used furniture size, were subjected into anthropometric measurements (shoulder, elbow, knee and popliteal height, buttock-popliteal length and hip breadth). Combinational equations defined the acceptable furniture dimensions according to anthropometry and match percentages were computed, according to either the existing situation--where children use the size assigned for their grade--or assuming that they could use the most appropriate of the sizes available. Desk and seat height were bigger than the accepted limits for most children (81.8% and 71.5%, respectively), while seat depth was appropriate for only 38.7% of children. In conclusion, the assumption that children could use the most appropriate yet available size significantly improved the match, indicating that the limited provision of one size per cluster of grades does not accommodate the variability of anthropometry even among children of the same age.

Designing Children's Furniture and Computers for School and Home

Designers who make products to fit children face challenges, especially lack of current anthropometric data.

Sitting habits in elementary schoolchildren: a traditional versus a "Moving school"

This study evaluated differences in sitting habits in the classroom between the project "Moving school" and a traditional school in 8-year-old children. Twenty-two children, since 1.5 years involved in the project were compared to 25 children in a traditional school. Making use of the Portable Ergonomic Observation (PEO) method, it was observed that children from a traditional school spend an average of 97% of the lesson time sitting statically, from which one-third with the trunk bend over 45 degrees. In the "Moving school" this posture was replaced by dynamic sitting (53%), standing (31%) and walking around (10%), while trunk flexion over 45 degrees was nearly not observed. Children from the "Moving school" also showed significantly less neck and trunk rotation. Additionally, accelerometric data showed significantly more physical activity in lessons of the "Moving school". Rates of self-reported back or neck pain did not differ significantly between both study groups. Results show that sitting habits are more favourable in a "Moving school". Further research is needed to study the impact of implementing "Moving school" concepts in traditional schools on sitting habits.

Children at risk: risk factors for low back pain in the elementary school environment

STUDY DESIGN

A prevalence survey of 101 randomly selected elementary schools in the Israel Central District.

OBJECTIVES

To identify and describe risk factors for low back pain that exist in the elementary school environment.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Recent surveys report a high prevalence of low back pain in children and adolescents that increases with age, with a correlation between low back pain in adolescence and that experienced in adulthood. Environmental risk factors have been associated with the development of low back pain in children. Because of the significant amount of time children spend in their school environment, risk factors need to be identified in this environment.

METHODS

A questionnaire, completed by school nurses, measured risk factors among 10,000 children in elementary schools in Israel. These included backpack and student weight, the availability of storage facilities, the appropriateness of chair and desk height to student height, seating arrangements during frontal lessons, and physical activity at recess.

RESULTS

Between 30% and 54% of students carried >15% of their body weight. Nearly 15% of the first graders and 20% of sixth graders had inappropriate chairs. In 74% of the classes, students sat with their side facing the teacher and in 35% students sat with their backs. In 6% of schools, no physical activity is offered at recess.

CONCLUSIONS

Shortcomings were found in all areas investigated. There is an urgent need for health promotion programs to increase awareness and reduce risks in the school environment.

Classroom furniture dimensions and anthropometric measures in primary school

The purpose of this study was to compare students' dimensions to the dimension of school furniture, in primary school, and determine whether this type of furniture is well-designed and promotes good sitting posture at school by taking into account the dimensions of the children. A total of 180 (90 male and 90 female) students, from three primary schools in Thessaloniki, Greece, participated in the study. Their ages ranged from 7 to 12 years. The following human body dimensions were measured: stature, elbow height, shoulder height, upper arm length, knee height, popliteal height and buttock-popliteal length. In addition, the dimensions were measured for four different types of chairs and five types of desks prevalent in classrooms. Finally, the anthropometric measures of the students and the furniture dimensions were compared in order to identify any incompatibility between them. The data indicate a mismatch between the students' bodily dimensions and the classroom furniture available to them. The chairs are too high and too deep and desks are also too high for the pupils. This situation has negative effects on the sitting posture of the children especially when reading and writing.

Classroom posture and self-reported back and neck pain in schoolchildren

The study reported here aims to identify the extent of back pain experienced by 11-14 year old schoolchildren, and establish the intensity, duration and frequency of exposure to physical risk factors present in schools. This paper considers the sitting postures of schoolchildren in the classroom. The sitting postures of 66 children were recorded in normal lessons using the Portable Ergonomic Observation Method (PEO). The study found significant associations between flexed postures and low back pain. Static postures and neck and upper back pain were also associated. This study has implications for schools, designers and people in the field of work related musculoskeletal disorders. Further research is required to examine the association between sitting posture and pain reported at different spinal locations.

Revision of the design of a standard for the dimensions of school furniture

In this study an anthropometric design process was followed. The aim was to improve the fit of school furniture sizes for European children. It was demonstrated statistically that the draft of a European standard does not cover the target population. No literature on design criteria for sizes exists, and in practice it is common to calculate the fit for only the mean values (P50). The calculations reported here used body dimensions of Dutch children, measured by the authors' Department, and used data from German and British national standards. A design process was followed that contains several steps, including: Target group, Anthropometric model and Percentage exclusion. The criteria developed in this study are (1) a fit on the basis of 1% exclusion (P1 or P99), and (2) a prescription based on popliteal height. Based on this new approach it was concluded that prescription of a set size should be based on popliteal height rather than body height. The drafted standard, Pren 1729, can be improved with this approach. A European standard for school furniture should include the exception that for Dutch children an extra large size is required.