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Campillo-Ferrer T, Alcaraz-Sánchez A, Demšar E, Wu HP, Dresler M, Windt J, Blanke O. Out-of-body experiences in relation to lucid dreaming and sleep paralysis: A theoretical review and conceptual model. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105770. [PMID: 38880408 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Out-of-body experiences (OBEs) are characterized by the subjective experience of being located outside the physical body. Little is known about the neurophysiology of spontaneous OBEs, which are often reported by healthy individuals as occurring during states of reduced vigilance, particularly in proximity to or during sleep (sleep-related OBEs). In this paper, we review the current state of research on sleep-related OBEs and hypothesize that maintaining consciousness during transitions from wakefulness to REM sleep (sleep-onset REM periods) may facilitate sleep-related OBEs. Based on this hypothesis, we propose a new conceptual model that potentially describes the relationship between OBEs and sleep states. The model sheds light on the phenomenological differences between sleep-related OBEs and similar states of consciousness, such as lucid dreaming (the realization of being in a dream state) and sleep paralysis (feeling paralyzed while falling asleep or waking up), and explores the potential polysomnographic features underlying sleep-related OBEs. Additionally, we apply the predictive coding framework and suggest a connecting link between sleep-related OBEs and OBEs reported during wakefulness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Campillo-Ferrer
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Neuropsychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
| | - Adriana Alcaraz-Sánchez
- Centre for Philosophical Psychology, Department of Philosophy, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ema Demšar
- Monash Centre for Consciousness and Contemplative Studies, Melbourne, Australia; Monash University, Department of Philosophy, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Hsin-Ping Wu
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuro-X Institute & Brain Mind Institute, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Geneva University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Martin Dresler
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Jennifer Windt
- Monash Centre for Consciousness and Contemplative Studies, Melbourne, Australia; Monash University, Department of Philosophy, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Olaf Blanke
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuro-X Institute & Brain Mind Institute, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Geneva University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
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2
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Weiler M, Acunzo DJ, Cozzolino PJ, Greyson B. Exploring the transformative potential of out-of-body experiences: A pathway to enhanced empathy. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105764. [PMID: 38879098 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024]
Abstract
Out-of-body experiences (OBEs) are subjective phenomena during which individuals feel disembodied or perceive themselves as outside of their physical bodies, often resulting in profound and transformative effects. In particular, experiencers report greater heightened pro-social behavior, including more peaceful relationships, tolerance, and empathy. Drawing parallels with the phenomenon of ego dissolution induced by certain psychedelic substances, we explore the notion that OBEs may engender these changes through ego dissolution, which fosters a deep-seated sense of unity and interconnectedness with others. We then assess potential brain mechanisms underlying the link between OBEs and empathy, considering the involvement of the temporoparietal junction and the Default Mode Network. This manuscript offers an examination of the potential pathways through which OBEs catalyze empathic enhancement, shedding light on the intricate interplay between altered states of consciousness and human empathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Weiler
- Division of Perceptual Studies. Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
| | - David J Acunzo
- Division of Perceptual Studies. Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Philip J Cozzolino
- Division of Perceptual Studies. Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Bruce Greyson
- Division of Perceptual Studies. Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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3
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Martial C, Cassol H, Slater M, Bourdin P, Mensen A, Oliva R, Laureys S, Núñez P. Electroencephalographic Signature of Out-of-Body Experiences Induced by Virtual Reality: A Novel Methodological Approach. J Cogn Neurosci 2023; 35:1410-1422. [PMID: 37255451 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_02011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Out-of-body experiences (OBEs) are subjective experiences of seeing one's own body and the environment from a location outside the physical body. They can arise spontaneously or in specific conditions, such as during the intake of dissociative drug. Given its unpredictable occurrence, one way to empirically study it is to induce subjective experiences resembling an OBE using technology such as virtual reality. We employed a complex multisensory method of virtual embodiment in a virtual reality scenario with seven healthy participants to induce virtual OBE-like experiences. Participants performed two conditions in a randomly determined order. For both conditions, the participant's viewpoint was lifted out of the virtual body toward the ceiling of the virtual room, and real body movements were (visuo-tactile ON condition) or were not (visuo-tactile OFF condition) translated into movements on the virtual body below-the latter aiming to maintain a feeling of connection with the virtual body. A continuous 128-electrode EEG was recorded. Participants reported subjective experiences of floating in the air and of feeling high up in the virtual room at a strong intensity, but a weak to moderate feeling of being "out of their body" in both conditions. The EEG analysis revealed that this subjective experience was associated with a power shift that manifested in an increase of delta and a decrease of alpha relative power. A reduction of theta complexity and an increase of beta-2 connectivity were also found. This supports the growing body of evidence revealing a prominent role of delta activity during particular conscious states.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mel Slater
- University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences of the University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pierre Bourdin
- University of Barcelona, Spain
- Open University of Catalonia, Spain
| | | | | | - Steven Laureys
- University of Liège, Belgium
- University Hospital of Liège, Belgium
- University Laval, Québec, Canada
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4
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Dienes Z, Lush P. The Role of Phenomenological Control in Experience. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2023. [DOI: 10.1177/09637214221150521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
To varying degrees, people have the capacity to alter their subjective experience such that it misrepresents reality in ways consistent with their goals and such that the misrepresentation can be sustained over at least minutes despite clear contrary evidence. In other words, people have a capacity for phenomenological control. People can use this capacity to fulfill requirements of social situations or personal needs. One such prominent situation is hypnosis. Another situation that psychologists often place people in is the psychological experiment, in which it is often clear to subjects what experiences are desired. Situations in life may also call for certain experiences, for example, encountering a spiritual world according to one’s religious beliefs. These experiences can be constructed so that they seem to confirm the beliefs of all the people involved.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter Lush
- Department of Informatics, University of Sussex
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5
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Herrero NL, Gallo FT, Gasca-Rolín M, Gleiser PM, Forcato C. Spontaneous and induced out-of-body experiences during sleep paralysis: Emotions, "AURA" recognition, and clinical implications. J Sleep Res 2023; 32:e13703. [PMID: 36053735 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.13703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Sleep paralysis is characterized by the incapacity to perform voluntary movements during sleep/wake transitions, and could bring great discomfort. During sleep paralysis, out-of-body experiences can occur. Out-of-body experiences refers to the sensation of being outside of the physical body and perceiving the world from this outside perspective; however, they are pleasant in comparison with other sleep paralysis hallucinations. Lucid dreams are dreams in which a subject becomes aware of being dreaming while the dream occurs. Here, we designed an online survey to study the predominant and specific emotions during sleep paralysis and/or out-of-body experience events as well as the somatosensory perceptions that preceded their occurrence. The sample (N = 329) was divided into experimental groups depending on the presence/absence of out-of-body experiences, capacity to induce (or not) out-of-body experiences, and perception/no-perception of the sleep paralysis. We showed that more positive emotions were associated with out-of-body experiences and more negative emotions were associated with sleep paralysis episodes, and for those who claim the ability to induce out-of-body experiences, positive emotions were more frequent in their episodes. We found that subjects perceived auditory, tactile and visual sensations before sleep paralysis episodes, and we proposed that these could be an "aura" of sleep paralysis. Furthermore, subjects that had out-of-body experiences but had never felt the sleep paralysis, perceived tactile and visual sensations to the same extent as subjects with out-of-body experiences that felt the sleep paralysis. Therefore, we proposed that the "aura" recognition could be used under controlled conditions for out-of-body experiences induction in patients with sleep paralysis to diminish the negative symptoms associated with sleep paralysis episodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerea L Herrero
- Laboratorio de Sueño y Memoria, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Instituto Tecnológico de Buenos Aires (ITBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,ENYS-CONICET, Universidad Nacional Arturo Jauretche, Hospital de Alta Complejidad en Red El Cruce "Néstor Kirchner", Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Francisco T Gallo
- Laboratorio de Sueño y Memoria, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Instituto Tecnológico de Buenos Aires (ITBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Pablo M Gleiser
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Laboratorio de Neurociencia de Sistemas Complejos, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Instituto Tecnológico de Buenos Aires (ITBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Cecilia Forcato
- Laboratorio de Sueño y Memoria, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Instituto Tecnológico de Buenos Aires (ITBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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6
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The Altered States Database: Psychometric data from a systematic literature review. Sci Data 2022; 9:720. [PMID: 36418335 PMCID: PMC9684144 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01822-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we present the development of the Altered States Database (ASDB), an open-science project based on a systematic literature review. The ASDB contains psychometric questionnaire data on subjective experiences of altered states of consciousness (ASC) induced by pharmacological and non-pharmacological methods. The systematic review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Scientific journal articles were identified through PubMed and Web of Science. We included studies that examined ASC using the following validated questionnaires: Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (APZ, 5D-ASC, 11-ASC), Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI), Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS), or Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30). The systematic review resulted in the inclusion of a total of 165 journal articles, whereof questionnaire data was extracted and is now available on the Open Science Framework (OSF) website (https://osf.io/8mbru) and on the ASDB website (http://alteredstatesdb.org), where questionnaire data can be easily retrieved and visualized. This data allows the calculation of comparable psychometric values of ASC experiences and of dose-response relationships of substances inducing ASC. Measurement(s) | Psychometric questionnaire data | Technology Type(s) | Systematic literature review (PRISMA) | Sample Characteristic - Organism | Human |
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7
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Facco E. Hypnosis and Hypnotic ability between old beliefs and new evidences: An epistemological reflection. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CLINICAL HYPNOSIS 2022; 64:20-35. [PMID: 34748464 DOI: 10.1080/00029157.2020.1863181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The history of hypnosis has been marked by its effectiveness paralleled by prejudicial refusal, due to its ostensible incompatibility with the ruling Weltbild (picture of the world). Its interpretation has been mainly based on concepts like suggestibility, dissociation, hallucination, impairment of sense of agency, and free will. Nevertheless, little evidence and agreement has been reached so far on the nature of hypnosis and hypnotic ability, an uncertainty enhanced by the wide range of meanings and ambiguities of the used terms. This article analyzes the main epistemological implications involved in the topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Facco
- University of Padua, Padua, Italy
- Inst. Franco Granone – Italian Center of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis (CIIICS), Turin, Italy
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8
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The meaning of momentary psychotic-like experiences in a non-clinical sample: A personality perspective. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0267054. [PMID: 35443007 PMCID: PMC9020697 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0267054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationships between Momentary Psychotic-Like Experiences (MPLEs) and HEXACO—complemented by the proneness to PLEs conceptualized as a basic personality trait (Disintegration), and a maladaptive trait (PID-5 Psychoticism)—were investigated in a prospective study that includes experience-sampling methodology (ESM). The main goal was to investigate whether MPLEs are better predicted by HEXACO or measures of the dispositional proneness to PLEs. A sample of 180 participants assessed MPLEs and affective states they experienced in the previous two hours, twice per day, with semi-randomly set assessment time-points, during seven days, by using ESM. Personality inventories were administered 1–2 months earlier. MPLEs were better predicted by the measures of dispositional tendencies toward PLEs than by the HEXACO, no matter whether it was broadly defined as the nine-faceted general tendency toward PLEs (Disintegration), or narrowly as three-faceted positive psychotic-like symptoms of maladaptive personality tendencies (PID-5—Psychoticism).
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9
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Fingelkurts AA, Fingelkurts AA, Kallio-Tamminen T. Self, Me and I in the repertoire of spontaneously occurring altered states of Selfhood: eight neurophenomenological case study reports. Cogn Neurodyn 2021; 16:255-282. [PMID: 35401860 PMCID: PMC8934794 DOI: 10.1007/s11571-021-09719-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigates eight case reports of spontaneously emerging, brief episodes of vivid altered states of Selfhood (ASoSs) that occurred during mental exercise in six long-term meditators by using a neurophenomenological electroencephalography (EEG) approach. In agreement with the neurophenomenological methodology, first-person reports were used to identify such spontaneous ASoSs and to guide the neural analysis, which involved the estimation of three operational modules of the brain self-referential network (measured by EEG operational synchrony). The result of such analysis demonstrated that the documented ASoSs had unique neurophenomenological profiles, where several aspects or components of Selfhood (measured neurophysiologically and phenomenologically) are affected and expressed differently, but still in agreement with the neurophysiological three-dimensional construct model of the complex experiential Selfhood proposed in our earlier work (Fingelkurts et al. in Conscious Cogn 86:103031. 10.1016/j.concog.2020.103031, 2020).
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10
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Martial C, Mensen A, Charland-Verville V, Vanhaudenhuyse A, Rentmeister D, Bahri MA, Cassol H, Englebert J, Gosseries O, Laureys S, Faymonville ME. Neurophenomenology of near-death experience memory in hypnotic recall: a within-subject EEG study. Sci Rep 2019; 9:14047. [PMID: 31575924 PMCID: PMC6773844 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-50601-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurobiological basis of near-death experiences (NDEs) is unknown, but a few studies attempted to investigate it by reproducing in laboratory settings phenomenological experiences that seem to closely resemble NDEs. So far, no study has induced NDE-like features via hypnotic modulation while simultaneously measuring changes in brain activity using high-density EEG. Five volunteers who previously had experienced a pleasant NDE were invited to re-experience the NDE memory and another pleasant autobiographical memory (dating to the same time period), in normal consciousness and with hypnosis. We compared the hypnosis-induced subjective experience with the one of the genuine experience memory. Continuous high-density EEG was recorded throughout. At a phenomenological level, we succeeded in recreating NDE-like features without any adverse effects. Absorption and dissociation levels were reported as higher during all hypnosis conditions as compared to normal consciousness conditions, suggesting that our hypnosis-based protocol increased the felt subjective experience in the recall of both memories. The recall of a NDE phenomenology was related to an increase of alpha activity in frontal and posterior regions. This study provides a proof-of-concept methodology for studying the phenomenon, enabling to prospectively explore the NDE-like features and associated EEG changes in controlled settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Martial
- GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium. .,Centre du Cerveau², University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium.
| | - Armand Mensen
- GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Vanessa Charland-Verville
- GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Centre du Cerveau², University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Audrey Vanhaudenhuyse
- GIGA-Sensation & Perception Research Group, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Department of Algology, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | | | - Mohamed Ali Bahri
- GIGA-Cyclotron Research Centre In Vivo Imaging, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Héléna Cassol
- GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Centre du Cerveau², University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | | | - Olivia Gosseries
- GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Centre du Cerveau², University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Steven Laureys
- GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Centre du Cerveau², University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Marie-Elisabeth Faymonville
- GIGA-Sensation & Perception Research Group, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Department of Algology, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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11
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Facco E, Mendozzi L, Bona A, Motta A, Garegnani M, Costantini I, Dipasquale O, Cecconi P, Menotti R, Coscioli E, Lipari S. Dissociative identity as a continuum from healthy mind to psychiatric disorders: Epistemological and neurophenomenological implications approached through hypnosis. Med Hypotheses 2019; 130:109274. [PMID: 31383343 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2019.109274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The topic of multiple personality, redefined as Dissociative Identity Disorders (DIDs) in the DSM-5, is an intriguing and still debated disorder with a long history and deep cultural and epistemological implications, extending up to the idea of possession. Hypnosis is an appealing and valuable model to manipulate subjective experience and get an insight on both the physiology and the pathophysiology of the mind-brain functioning; it and has been closely connected with DIDs and possession since its origin in 18th century and as recently proved the capacity to yield a loss of sense of agency, mimicking delusions of alien control and spirit possession. In this study we report on five very uncommon "hypnotic virtuosos" (HVs) free from any psychiatric disorder, spontaneously undergoing the emergence of multiple identities during neutral hypnosis; this allowed us to check the relationship between their experience and fMRI data. During hypnosis the subjects underwent spontaneous non-intrusive experiences of other selves which were not recalled after the end of the session, due to post-hypnotic amnesia. The fMRI showed a significant decrease of connectivity in the Default Mode Network (DMN) especially between the posterior cingulate cortex and the medial prefrontal cortex. Our results and their contrast with the available data on fMRI in DIDs allows to draw the hypothesis of a continuum between healthy mind - where multiple identities may coexist at unconscious level and may sometimes emerge to the consciousness - and DIDs, where multiple personalities emerge as dissociated, ostensibly autonomous components yielding impaired functioning, subject's loss of control and suffering. If this is the case, it seems more reasonable to refrain from seeking for a clear-cut limit between normality (anyway a conventional, statistical concept) and pathology, and accept a grey area in between, where ostensibly odd but non-pathological experiences may occur (including so-called non-ordinary mental expressions) without calling for treatment but, rather, for being properly understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Facco
- Studium Patavinum - Dept. of Neurosciences, University of Padua, Italy; Science of Consciousness Research Group, Dept. of General Psychology, University of Padua, Italy; Inst. F. Granone - Italian Center of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis (CIICS), Turin, Italy.
| | - Laura Mendozzi
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, via Capecelatro 66, 20148 Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo Bona
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, Milan, Italy
| | - Achille Motta
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Villa San Benedetto Hospital, Hermanas Hospitalarias, Albese con Cassano, via Roma 16, Como, Italy
| | - Massimo Garegnani
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, via Capecelatro 66, 20148 Milan, Italy
| | - Isa Costantini
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, via Capecelatro 66, 20148 Milan, Italy; INRIA, Sophia-Antipolis, France
| | - Ottavia Dipasquale
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, via Capecelatro 66, 20148 Milan, Italy; Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Pietro Cecconi
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, via Capecelatro 66, 20148 Milan, Italy
| | - Roberta Menotti
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Villa San Benedetto Hospital, Hermanas Hospitalarias, Albese con Cassano, via Roma 16, Como, Italy
| | | | - Susanna Lipari
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, via Capecelatro 66, 20148 Milan, Italy
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