A note on the early history of electrical stimulation of the human brain

Probing the human brain with stimulating electrodes: the story of Roberts Bartholow's (1874) experiment on Mary Rafferty

Roberts Bartholow's 1874 experiment on Mary Rafferty is widely cited as the first demonstration, by direct application of stimulating electrodes, of the motor excitability of the human cerebral cortex. The many accounts of the experiment, however, leave certain questions and details unexamined or unresolved, especially about Bartholow's goals, the nature and quality of the evidence, and the experiment's role in the history of theory and research on localisation of function. In this article, we try to fill these gaps and to tell the full story. We describe Bartholow's career up to 1874, review the theoretical and empirical background for the experiment, and present Bartholow's own account of the experiment as well as those of his supporters and critics. We then present our own analysis, assess the experiment's influence on contemporaneous scientific opinion about cortical excitability, and trace its citation record into our own time. We also review and assess ethical criticisms of Bartholow and their effects on his career, and we close by discussing the role we think the experiment deserves to play in the history of theory and research on cortical excitability.

Effects of noninvasive transcutaneous electrical stimulation via concentric ring electrodes on pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus in rats

PURPOSE

The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the antiepileptic effects of a novel noninvasive stimulation technique, transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TcES) via scalp concentric ring electrodes, on pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE) in rats.

METHODS

Five minutes after the onset of SE, TcES was administered to the experimental rat via bipolar concentric ring electrode at the CZ location. Symmetrical, biphasic, charge-balanced, constant current, isolated pulses were applied via a custom-made stimulator. TcES parameters ranged from 200-750 Hz, 200 or 300 mus pulse duration, and 50 or 60 mA, applied for 1 min, started with the least intense parameter set and progressively increased.

RESULTS

TcES attenuated electrographic seizure activity and halted the progression of behavioral seizures. Interruption of seizure activity outlasted the period of stimulation and appeared to be long-lasting. TcES treatment significantly extended the life and enhanced the survival of rats after SE.

CONCLUSIONS

Noninvasive TcES, applied 5 min after SE onset via novel concentric ring electrodes on the scalp, reduced, or abolished electrographic and behavioral seizure activity in pilocarpine-induced SE in rats. These findings suggest that TcES may have a role in the treatment of SE.