The making of unwanted sex: gendered and neoliberal norms in college women's unwanted sexual experiences

The Multiple Roles of Emotion in Interpretation and Memory of Sexual Consent

In this paper, we explore the role of emotion in the interpretation and memory of sexual encounters. We consider situations likely to generate negative emotions during sex, and the mechanisms through which the experience of negative emotions can lead to false memories of coercion and mislabeling of an encounter as sexual assault. Specifically, we consider the role of emotion in directing attention during a sexual encounter and the effects of emotion as context for interpretation at the time of the encounter, and for retrieval and interpretation when the encounter is later recalled and reported. Our intent is to provide a greater understanding of the processes of interpretation and memory through which false claims of sexual assault might arise, if and when they do arise.

Tonic Immobility as a Defensive Trauma Response to Rape: Bridging Public Health and Law

There is widespread scientific evidence that validates tonic immobility (TI) as part of the trauma response in victims of rape, and criminal justice practitioners are increasingly trained in trauma-informed approaches. Yet, legal and policy definitions of consent do not fully recognize TI during the incident as evidence of nonconsent. Using a systematic review of U.S. law and policy regarding sexual violence and consent, this paper analyzes the substantial legal reform of rape law and definitions of consent, suggesting ways to further integrate TI into existing law and legal practices to improve public health approaches and justice responses for victims.

Reporting Rape: Stigmatizing Reactions to Survivors Who Seek Accountability

Rape survivors face stigma when disclosing their experiences. We hypothesized that a rape survivor who formally reports their rape would experience more stigma than one who does not, and that this effect will be stronger when the perceiver is a man or low in support for sexual consent. Across two studies using self-report, observational, and psychophysiological measures, we found that a reporting survivor was seen more negatively than an identical survivor who did not report their rape. Men and those low in support for sexual consent also responded more negatively to the survivor. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Uncovering young people's situational construction of sexual consent

Aim: To investigate how young Danes construct sexual consent generally, but also specifically in relation to heavy alcohol intoxication. Methods: Drawing on 30 qualitative in-depth interviews with young people, aged 19-25 years, and adopting a critical discursive psychological framework, we explored the interpretative repertoires that the participants made use of to construct sexual consent and the subject positions those repertoires enabled. Results: The participants made use of three interpretative repertoires that we named as follows: (1) sexual consent as an agreement between rational individuals; (2) sexual consent as a heteronormative practice; and (3) intoxicated sexual consent. Discussion: Young people draw on different repertoires when discussing sexual consent in general, sexual consent in relation to gendered practices and expectations, and sexual consent in relation to heavy alcohol intoxication. Conclusion: It is vital to keep the situational nature of young people's constructions of sexual consent in mind if we wish to understand and eventually reduce the number of non-consensual sexual experiences.

Identifying the Impact of Sexual Scripts on Consent Negotiations

In light of research that shows the importance of effective sexual communication for healthier sexual relationships, less unwanted sexual activity, and less sexual violence, this article explores how both dominant and alternative sexual scripts influence sexual communication. Drawing on 51 in-depth interviews with adults in heterosexual, queer, non-monogamous, and kink sex communities about their actual communication and consent practices in sexual interactions, we asked 1) In what ways do dominant sexual scripts affect communication and consent in sexual interactions? 2) What factors encourage people to diverge from these dominant scripts? and 3) How do alternative scripts produce new forms of communication and consent? We found that traditional scripts remain common, especially among those with less sexual experience, and that adherence to these scripts is more likely to correspond to coercive or unwanted sex. Conversely, exposure to alternative sexual scripts via sexual experience, education, or communities often encourages sexual agency and communication. We conclude by discussing the implications of these insights about communicative consent negotiations for sexual violence prevention.

Sexual Compliance in Finnish Committed Relationships: Sexual Self-Control, Relationship Power, and Experienced Consequences

We studied sexual compliance (i.e., consensual engagement in partnered sexual activity despite lack of sexual desire) in committed relationships using a large Finnish sample. First, we tested if previous theories on sexual self-control and partner sexual relationship power could be extended to a Finnish setting. As little is known about the personal and relational consequences of compliance, we also explored the experienced consequences and their association with the aforementioned aspects. The convenience survey sample (n = 1,496) included individuals who were or had recently been in committed intimate relationships. As 93% of the participants were women, our analyses focused on these (64.3% heterosexual, 24.5% bisexual, 11.3% other). Sixty-five percent of women reported having complied at least once in their current or most recent relationship. Women with lower sexual self-control and higher partner sexual relationship power reported more compliance, corroborating previous research. Lower age was uniquely associated with more compliance, whereas the association between more compliance and lower education diminished when including sexual self-control and partner sexual relationship power in the regression model. Experienced consequences of compliance varied greatly among women. However, roughly two-fifths reported only negative consequences for their well-being and relationships. Fewer approach motives, more avoidance motives, lower sexual self-control, and higher partner relationship control were associated with experiencing fewer positive consequences. Our results corroborate previous studies conducted in North America, suggesting that sexual compliance is common among women in committed relationships. We suggest careful consideration in instances of compliance, considering possible negative consequences.

Defining and Measuring Sexual Consent within the Context of University Students' Unwanted and Nonconsensual Sexual Experiences: A Systematic Literature Review

Lack of sexual consent forms the foundation of unwanted (and nonconsensual) sexual experiences (USEs), yet research suggests it is not well understood amongst university students. While the prevalence of USEs has been well documented within the university context, less is known about how sexual consent is defined or measured. This review aims to identify a consistent sexual consent definition and how current research examining USEs defines and measures sexual consent amongst university students. A systematic review of nine electronic databases (2000-2022) was conducted, and the results were assessed against inclusion criteria (e.g., studies had to focus exclusively on university students). Thirty-three articles were identified and reviewed against the study aims. Sexual consent was more often implicitly defined across measures and articles. Four themes were identified (incapacitation, use of force, use of threats, and lack of wantedness) across the implicit definitions but varied by study with some implicitly defining sexual consent within the context of a relationship. Only three studies explicitly defined sexual consent, referring to it as a willingness to engage in sexual behavior. Measures assessed sexual consent communication or, attitudes and behaviors that might predict sexual aggression. Two studies examined students' individual sexual consent conceptualizations. Sexual consent appears to be contextual so future research should examine the variability of sexual consent in student samples. Students may indeed rely on implicit sexual consent definitions (rather than explicit) but more research is needed. Lastly, researchers should take care to be clear on their sexual consent definitions, both in text and within measures.

Understanding Refusals, Using Coercion: Young Men's Understanding and Use of Normalized Sexualized Violence within Heterosex

Sexual coercion is normalized within dominant cultural narratives of seduction and heteronormativity. Many men assert that they abhor rape, but may not comprehend or accept that rape can occur in ways that would challenge their notion of what is acceptable within heteronormative understandings of gender, seduction, and heterosex. Analyses of in-depth, semi-structured interviews with seven male participants in Australia substantiates previous research demonstrating that men are indeed capable of nuanced communication and can understand refusals. Despite understanding refusals, this research found that men perform naivete regarding their use of coercion, or employ language that justifies and minimizes their use of coercion and its potential impact. By exploring sexual negotiation and adherence to heteronormative gender roles and sexual scripts, the findings indicate that coercion is understood by men and employed despite clear signs of refusal, yet ensuing sexualized acts continue to be positioned as "consensual." Suggestions that women should "just say no" overlook that men use coercion past the point of refusals, indicating problematic beliefs about gender, sex, and entitlement, rather than communication issues.

Sexual Consent on Television: Differing Portrayal Effects on Adolescent Viewers

We conducted two studies to examine the portrayal of sexual consent and refusal in adolescent-directed programing and the effects of viewing this content on adolescents. In a quantitative content analysis, nonverbal consent cues were more prevalent than verbal consent cues. The presence of consent cues did not significantly differ by character gender, relationship status, or sexual behavior. Using a three-way between-subjects experiment, we examined the influence of exposure to media depictions of verbal sexual consent on adolescents' intentions to seek verbal sexual consent (n = 402, 61.4% girls, ages 12-18, M = 15.8, SD = 2.1). Exposure to verbal consent positively influenced intentions to seek verbal consent via increased positive attitudes toward women. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.

It Takes Two to Tango: Links Between Traditional Beliefs About both Men's and Women's Gender Roles and Comfort Initiating Sex and Comfort Refusing Sex

Traditional gender roles dictate rigid rules and standards prescribing which behaviors, thoughts, and feelings are considered masculine and feminine within sexual contexts, and thus internalizing these beliefs (higher traditional gender ideology) may influence sexual attitudes. Prior theorizing has primarily focused on how women's traditional beliefs about women's gender roles (traditional femininity ideology) and men's traditional beliefs about men's gender roles (traditional masculinity ideology) influence their sexual assertiveness. Yet, men can hold traditional beliefs about women, and women can hold traditional beliefs about men, and these beliefs should have important implications for sexual assertiveness. We addressed this gap by testing how both heterosexual women's (n = 389) and men's (n = 393) traditional masculinity and femininity ideologies associate with their reported comfort initiating sex and comfort refusing sex in their relationships. When accounting for both sets of beliefs, women's traditional beliefs about men's and women's roles interacted to predict comfort initiating sex, but not comfort refusing sex. Men's traditional beliefs about men's roles predicted less comfort refusing sex, and their traditional beliefs about women's roles predicted less comfort initiating sex. This novel research underscores the importance of considering beliefs about both sets of traditional gender roles for understanding people's sexual attitudes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11199-023-01366-w.

Sexualized Violence and Neoliberal Discourse

Researchers have paid relatively little attention to the role that sexual and gender violence play in reinforcing neoliberal discourse. We address this issue by demonstrating that the portrayal of women and girls in the mainstream media, female body practices based on this portrayal, gendered sexual-agency norms, sexual harassment, and rape are not only sexualized and violent, but they also display a common set of cultural scripts drawn from both patriarchal and neoliberal discourse. We thus conclude that these images, practices, and norms are forms of sexualized violence that reinforce patriarchal and neoliberal discourse and, thus, the gender and class orders.

Student reports of attendance at programs to reduce campus sexual assault and harassment

OBJECTIVE

To identify factors independently associated with program participation and knowledge of campus processes to address sexual assault and harassment complaints.

PARTICIPANTS

1,182 undergraduates who completed the University of Michigan's 2015 campus climate survey on topics of sexual assault and harassment (67% response rate).

METHODS

We analyze survey responses to estimate multivariable models that identify subgroups of the student population least likely to have participated in programs or to know campus processes.

RESULTS

Students living off campus, not involved in major organizations, and males are less likely to report attending programming. Students not involved in major organizations and females are less likely to report knowing campus processes.

CONCLUSIONS

Specific student subpopulations are more difficult to engage in programs designed to reduce sexual assault and harassment. Targeting additional effort to these groups may improve campus sexual climate. Careful analyses of campus climate survey data can help construct campus-specific priorities for these interventions.

What Stops Unwanted Sexual and Social Advances Made by Heavy Drinking College Men?

Although rates of sexual aggression are high among college men who engage in heavy drinking, little is known regarding how often heavy drinking college men initiate unwanted sexual advances towards women that could lead to a potential sexual assault or the reasons why these advances stop or proceed. The present study describes heavy drinking college men's (N = 210) initiation of unwanted sexual and social advances towards women, as well as outcomes of these interactions, including how often these behaviors continue, and men's perception of what stopped the behavior over a 3-month period. Men indicated whether they were in a situation where a sexual partner noted that she does not want sexual activity to proceed further, initiated unwanted sexual contact, initiated unwanted sexual intercourse, attempted to give a woman alcohol when she did not appear to want to drink, or attempted to take a woman to an isolated location when she did not appear to want to go. These unwanted sexual and social advances most often stopped because of women's verbal resistance (i.e., saying "stop" or "no"), or because men engaged in a discussion regarding the women's limits or choices. Given that none of the unwanted sexual or social advances stopped because of bystander intervention, the present study highlights the importance of raising awareness of the effectiveness of women's resistance tactics and continuing to train bystanders to notice and take action to address risky situations.

Gender Scripts and Female Sexual Functioning: The Role of Sexual Pressure and Sexual Subjectivity

Building upon previous research that has already established a negative association between gender scripts' endorsement and female sexual functioning, the present study tested a model that explains how gender scripts' endorsement may affect female sexual functioning through perceived sexual pressure, compliance with unwanted sex, and sexual subjectivity. A community sample of 390 women (mean age = 23.98 ± 4 years; age range: 18-35 years) completed measures of gender scripts' endorsement, sexual pressure, sexual subjectivity, sexual functioning, depression, and anxiety. The assessed structural model produced an adequate fit to the data (χ² = 41.93, df = 14, p = .0002; χ²/df = 2.99; RMSEA [90%CI] = .07 [.05-.08]; CFI = .95; SRMR = .05). Variables accounted for 42% of the variance in sexual functioning levels. We found evidence for two paths linking gender scripts' endorsement to sexual functioning: in the first path the association was mediated by the level of sexual subjectivity; in the second path the association was mediated by perceived sexual pressure and by the frequency of compliance with unwanted sex. The present study represents a step toward a better understanding of the socio-cultural and psychological mechanisms underlying the link between gender scripts and female sexual functioning; theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.

A Qualitative Examination of Withdrawing Sexual Consent, Sexual Compliance, and Young Women's Role as Sexual Gatekeepers

Introduction: Withdrawing consent for sex may be difficult for young women due to gendered sexual scripts and male persistence. Method: 40 students from Canadian universities (31 women; Mean age = 20.20 years; 75% heterosexual) were asked open-ended questions about sexual experiences and consent; data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Results: Women perceived that: (1) women were responsible for communicating consent, (2) they were unaware it was acceptable to withdraw consent or did not know how to, (3) male partners often persisted in response to withdrawal of consent, and (4) these experiences factored into compliance. Conclusion: Sexual consent education, at least in North America, should increase emphasis on withdrawing consent.

Reduced Sexual Desire in Young Norwegian Women: A Mixed-Methods Study

Sexuality has become an area of social competence in which individuals strive to be recognized as sexually competent performers. However, a large proportion of young women experience reduced sexual desire. In this study, both quantitative and qualitative methods were applied. Using data from a questionnaire, the aim of this study was to explore the prevalence of, and the factors associated with, lack of sexual interest and desire among young women in Norway. Further, with the help of in-depth interviews, we investigated how young women with reduced sexual desire experience living with their desire problems and what they experience as the cause of their problems. The sample in the quantitative study consisted of 505 Norwegian women between the ages of 18 and 29 years. ANOVA was employed to explore differences in scores on psychological factors and relational factors, as well as between participants who experienced a lack of sexual interest and desire, and those who did not. The results indicate a high prevalence of lack of sexual interest and desire among women (37.1%), while low appearance satisfaction and low relationship satisfaction were central predictors of lack of sexual interest and desire. The sample in the qualitative study consisted of ten Norwegian women with reduced sexual desire between the ages of 18 and 29 years. Through thematic analysis, four themes emerged as experiences of living with reduced sexual desire: (1) physical and mental health, (2) being a young woman in today's society, (3) relational factors, (4) negative experiences, personal expectations toward sexuality, and sexual trauma.

A Qualitative Analysis of Sexual Consent among Heavy-drinking College Men

The current study sought to examine how heavy-drinking college men describe communication of sexual interest and sexual consent. Thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with 12 heavy-drinking college men identified three themes. Themes included: (a) expectations about parties and sexual activity, (b) observing and communicating sexual interest, and (c) communication of sexual consent. Men reported visiting drinking environments to locate women who they assumed would be open to sexual advances. In these environments, sexual interest was inferred indirectly through shared alcohol use. Anticipating token resistance men reported "trying and trying again" to pursue escalating types of sexual activity. Consent was inferred when participants did not hear "no" from a sexual partner, highlighting the importance of continued education on verbal consent in the context of sexual assault prevention programs.

Expectations and Sexual Desire in Romantic Relationships: An Experimental Investigation of Pleasure and Emotional Closeness Expectancies among Young Adults

Drawing from expectancy-value theory, the current study documented expected likelihoods (i.e., expectancies) of orgasm, non-orgasmic sexual pleasure, and emotional closeness during sex with a romantic partner, then tested their causal roles in sexual desire. Participants (N = 582, 50.3% women) were drawn from college student and online samples of young adults in the US. Expectancies were high overall; men reported much higher orgasm expectancies than women and this gender difference was larger in the college sample. Using a within-subjects, factorial experimental design, hypothetical vignettes manipulated participants' expectancies (high/low) pertaining to sex with a romantic partner. Multilevel models indicated emotional closeness expectancies had the strongest effects on men's and women's desire. Orgasm expectancies had stronger effects among the online sample, yet had the weakest effects on desire overall. Both emotional closeness and non-orgasmic pleasure expectancies had stronger effects on women's desire than on men's. Findings indicate young adults' expectations for their romantic sexual experiences may play strong roles in stimulating or stifling their sexual desire, suggesting some desire differences may be partially explained by differences in expectancies, and underscore sex as an important mechanism for fostering intimacy and experiencing pleasure for both young men and young women. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.

Associations between sexual precedent and sexual compliance: An event-level examination

Objective Most studies on agreeing to unwanted sex have assessed sexual encounters between people who have had sex before. Thus, we examined instances of sexual compliance with a novel sexual partner. Participants: A probability sample of college students at a university in the Midwest United States (N = 7,112). Methods: Participants completed an online survey based on measures from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior. Results: Only 2.5% (n = 179) agreed to unwanted sexual activity at their most recent sexual encounter. People who were sexually compliant with a novel sexual partner frequently did so due to their own alcohol intoxication. Further, sexual compliance with novel sexual partners was less frequently associated with affectionate sexual behaviors or orgasm. Conclusions: Our initial findings regarding the effect of sexual precedent on sexual compliance warrant further research on instances when people agree to sex they don't want with novel partners.

From ignorance to knowledge: Sexual consent and queer stories

The problem of sexual assault has received increasing public attention over the last few years, with an increasing focus on the concept of sexual consent to solve the problem. Education efforts focus on teaching people what consent is and how to explicitly communicate about sex, constructing consent as a knowledge problem. Using the stories of queer adults, this study calls for the development of an epistemology of sexual consent. I argue that the current research and scholarship fail to recognise existing knowledge about sexual consent, relegating sexual consent to an epistemology of ignorance. Queer participants in this study demonstrated sophisticated knowledge of sexual consent through their talk on the role of verbal consent cues and articulating how they “tune in” to their partners during sex. Within their talk, verbal consent was sometimes viewed as essential to consent, while at times was not necessary, and at other times was not enough to understand a partner's sexual consent. Importantly, they described deep knowledge about partners’ comfort, discomfort or hesitation through “tuning in”. Developing an epistemology of sexual consent requires recognising and valuing what participants tell us about what they know about their partners’ willingness to engage in sex.

False Rape Allegation and Regret: A Theoretical Model Based on Cognitive Dissonance

The aim of this paper is to provide a model illustrating how regretful consensual intercourse may lead to false rape allegations (FRA). An intrapersonal perspective of regret based on cognitive dissonance is added to the interpersonal factors already mentioned in the literature. The intrapersonal perspective is discussed in terms of the reduction of a state of cognitive dissonance induced by the gap between social norms and the shamefully perceived behavior. First, we start with the review of the different motives that may lead to a FRA, insisting on regret caused by cognitive dissonance. We then develop the emergence of regret from a state of cognitive dissonance. Second, we describe the means used to build the model: a literature review, an extraction of the factors at play in regret-based FRA, a chronological structure of the various factors, as some are necessarily the source of others. We then build the model. Third, we illustrate how the model could encompass many possible and usual scenarios. Thirteen plausible scenarios were developed to show the relevance of the model. Finally, we comment and discuss the model for future research and prevention.

Alcohol Use and Risk Factors for Sexual Aggression: Differences According to Relationship Status

The present study examined the ways alcohol use and risk factors for sexual assault perpetration vary by relationship status. Participants included 242 college men (age = 18-22 years) from a northeastern university who identified as being single or in a casual or committed dating relationship with a female partner. ANCOVAs and paired t tests compared individuals who were single, casually dating, and in committed relationships on self-reported alcohol use during sexual situations, beliefs about sexual communication, behavior associated with sexual aggression, and peer approval of sexual aggression. Differences in alcohol use during sexual situations and behavior associated with sexual aggression according to relationship status emerged. Post hoc analyses examining whether alcohol use during sexual situations moderated significant associations between relationship status and behavior associated with sexual aggression suggested that men in committed relationships who endorsed more frequent alcohol use during sexual situations also endorsed more behavior associated with sexual aggression. Findings suggest that individuals in committed relationships who often use alcohol during sexual situations may be at increased risk of sexually aggressive behavior.

Sexual Consent Communication among Sexual and Gender Minority College Students

Sexual scripts and consent communication methods are seldom explored outside of heterosexual, cisgender relationships. To date, little research has been conducted to determine how sexual and gender minority (SGM) students conceptualize and communicate consent. This study explored SGM undergraduate students' (n = 81) sexual consent communication scripts using open-ended survey items. We conducted a thematic freelisting analysis to assess the domains of consent and non-consent scripts using Smith's Salience Score (S). Salient indicators of consent were verbal communication (S = .31; 38%); however, more specific forms of verbal communication were listed as a spectrum, including: asking (a request, S = .16; 23%), saying (a statement, S = .16; 20%), and telling (a command, S = .10; 13%). The most salient indicators of verbal non-consent were on a similar spectrum: saying no (S = .42; 9%), verbal communication broadly (S = .23; 27%), and telling no (S = .06; 7%). Salient physical indicators of both consent and non-consent also followed a spectrum in their descriptions. Future research among SGM college students should explore the meanings, patterns, and differences in consent communication and sexual scripts.

Too Common to Count? "Mild" Sexual Assault and Aggression among U.S. College Women

National estimates indicate that approximately 1 in 5 women will experience sexual assault during her time in college. However, measures of assault often exclude "mild" experiences, such as incidents of unwanted touching that were not preceded by force, incapacitation, or coercion. We aimed to document the characteristics of "mild" sexual assault and aggression that college women experience at large parties and bars. In addition, we considered women's descriptions of assaultive and aggressive incidents in the context of campus climate survey items to evaluate the potential for measurement gaps. Across six focus groups (N = 36) at a large, public university in the midwestern U.S., women described routine experiences of "mild" sexual assault and aggression, so common that often only imprecise counts of their frequency (e.g., "all the time") were possible. Our findings document the many forms and frequencies of "mild" assault and aggression in college women's lives, as well as the limits of campus climate surveys in measuring the mundane sexual mistreatment of women in campus life. We develop the term "sexualized aggression" to capture such mistreatment and situate this concept within the larger body of research on campus sexual violence.

Surviving Victimization: How Service and Advocacy Organizations Describe Traumatic Experiences, 1998-2016

Service and advocacy organizations have long struggled to find the appropriate language to name traumatic experiences when working with vulnerable populations. Organizations have been pressed to adopt either "victim"-based language or "survivor"-based language, with both terms seen as having mutually exclusive meanings. However, despite academic and popular debates, no recent studies have documented trends in language used to describe traumatic experiences, whether of sexual and relationship violence, or of experiences of war, disaster, or major illness. In this research note, we use administrative data from the Internal Revenue Service to analyze how 3,756 service and advocacy organizations use trauma-related language between 1998 and 2016. Descriptive analysis shows that survivor language has been on the rise as victim language declined. Victim remains a common way to name trauma, however, and survivor tends to join, rather than displace, victim terminology. Further analysis also points to gendered use of both terms. Victim and survivor are used together most often in organizations that work with trauma experienced by women and in the field of sexual and relationship violence. We suggest these findings indicate a more complex story of how communities of language users emerge, which aligns with recent sociological treatments of discourse.

Unwanted Sex Due to Intoxication among Australians Aged 16-69 Years

Intoxication can be a factor in unwanted sex, but research on the extent of the issue in both women and men is limited. We assessed the prevalence, correlates, and 10-year time-trends of unwanted sex due to intoxication among a representative sample of 4,279 women and 3,875 men aged 16-69 years in Australia and considered how these vary by gender. In 2012-13, 16% of women and 10% of men reported ever having had a sexual experience when they "did not want to because they were too drunk or high at the time." For both women and men, this was associated with younger age, bisexual activity, and reports of lifetime injection drug use, sexually transmitted infections, and forced sex. Among women only, it was associated with drinking above guideline levels and ever having terminated a pregnancy. Among men only, it was associated with current tobacco smoking, elevated psychosocial distress, and poor general health. Compared with 2001-02 data, fewer men reported unwanted intoxicated sex, while there were no changes for women as a whole. Interpreting these findings through an intersectional assemblage framework supports stronger understanding of the multiple factors influencing sexuality and substance use with implications for promoting equity, safety, and sexual health.

Understanding How University Students Use Perceptions of Consent, Wantedness, and Pleasure in Labeling Rape

While the lack of consent is the only determining factor in considering whether a situation is rape or not, there is sufficient evidence that participants conflate wantedness with consent and pleasurableness with wantedness. Understanding how people appraise sexual scenarios may form the basis to develop appropriate educational packages. We conducted two large-scale qualitative studies in two UK universities in which participants read vignettes describing sexual encounters that were consensual or not, wanted or unwanted and pleasurable or not pleasurable. Participants provided free-text responses as to whether they perceived the scenarios to be rape or not and why they made these judgments. The second study replicated the results of the first and included a condition where participants imagined themselves as either the subject or initiator of the sexual encounter. The results indicate that a significant portion of our participants held attitudes reflecting rape myths and tended to blame the victim. Participants used distancing language when imagining themselves in the initiator condition. Participants indicated that they felt there were degrees of how much a scenario reflected rape rather than it simply being a dichotomy (rape or not). Such results indicate a lack of understanding of consent and rape and highlight avenues of potential educational materials for schools, universities or jurors.

The Gray Area of Defining Sexual Assault: An Exploratory Study of College Students' Perceptions

College-age women are disproportionately at risk of experiencing sexual assault. Sexual assault causes tremendous psychological distress for survivors. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the perceptions that affect the perpetration of sexual assault. One of those potential factors is how college students conceptualize and define sexual assault. The current qualitative study demonstrated that college students do not have consistent images of sexual assault and often rely on their own perceptions and experiences to define it. Creating and providing a standard of sexual assault based on the reality of college students can provide a foundation for creating effective prevention strategies.

Pathways to Pleasure and Protection: Exploring Embodiment, Desire, and Entitlement to Pleasure as Predictors of Black and White Young Women’s Sexual Agency

Sexual agency is a fundamental dimension of sexual subjectivity and well-being. Research and theory suggest that it functions in the service of both protection from harm and enabling sexual pleasure. However, sexual agency can be difficult for women to navigate in a social landscape in which femininity ideologies remain powerful social forces, operating in racialized ways. We examined how embodiment, sexual desire, and entitlement to sexual pleasure were associated with sexual agency in the service of protection (i.e., condom use and refusing unwanted sex) and pleasure (i.e., asking for what one wants from a sexual partner) for Black and White heterosexual college women using path analysis and path invariance testing. We found that across race, women’s embodiment was associated with greater comfort with their sexual desire, which in turn was associated with greater entitlement to sexual pleasure and sexual agency in service of both pleasure and protection. While Black and White women evidenced similar levels of both forms of agency, Black participants’ agency in the service of protection was unrelated to their entitlement to sexual pleasure. We discuss these findings in light of racialized discourses of women’s sexuality and the importance of understanding sexual desire as anchored in the body and enabling young women’s sexual agency.

Latin American Women´s Beliefs, Views and Ideas About Sexual Assertiveness: A Focus Group Study in Cuenca (Ecuador)

In an attempt to extend our understanding of how social contexts co-create female sexuality in Latin America, the aim of the current study was to explore the beliefs, views, and ideas about sexual assertiveness in Latino emerging adult women. Seventeen women between 22 and 30 years old living in Cuenca, Ecuador, participated in focus groups. A constructivist grounded theory approach was used to analyze the data. Findings suggest that the overall views about sexual assertiveness in emerging adult women can be grouped into five categories: (1) gender role schemata; (2) concerns about the partner's thoughts and reactions; (3) gendered attitudes towards the use of specific methods of contraception; (4) talking about sexual histories as a challenging task; and (5) replication of family patterns. The findings of this study are discussed within existing literature that highlights the influence of gender role schemata on sexual assertiveness. Finally, a plea for more culturally sensitive research is formulated as well as some educational - the need to reinforce sex education programs - and clinical - highlighting the ability to be sexually assertive from the start of a relationship - implications are mentioned.

The Impact of Coercive Control on Use of Specific Sexual Coercion Tactics

There is substantial evidence that women experience unwanted sex under nonviolent duress from partners. This study examined the relationship between coercive control and sexual coercion in heterosexual couples. Among a sample of 136 men arrested for domestic violence, extent of coercive control was used to predict the likelihood of using eight specific sexual coercion tactics. Findings indicated that coercive control predicted significantly greater likelihood of using covert tactics, but not physically violent or overtly aggressive tactics. The tactics that demonstrated the strongest relationship with coercive control seem indicative of a toxic relational environment that may subtly erode victim autonomy and sense of self over time. Implications discuss how use of more covert and insidious tactics maintain invisibility, isolation, blame, and perceived complicitness of victims in clinical, legal, and social settings.

When Orgasms Do Not Equal Pleasure: Accounts of "Bad" Orgasm Experiences During Consensual Sexual Encounters

Orgasms during consensual sex are often assumed to be wholly positive experiences. This assumption overshadows the possibility that orgasm experiences during consensual sex could be "bad" (i.e., negative and/or non-positive). In the present study, we employed an online survey to explore the possibility that orgasm experiences could be "bad" during consensual sex by asking participants of diverse gender and sexual identities (N = 726, M age = 28.42 years, SD = 7.85) about a subset of potential bad orgasm experiences. Specifically, we asked participants whether they have ever had an orgasm during coerced sex, compliant sex, and/or when they felt pressured to have an orgasm (i.e., orgasm pressure). We also asked participants who had such an experience to describe it, resulting in qualitative descriptions from 289 participants. Using mixed quantitative and qualitative analyses, we found compelling evidence that orgasm experiences can be "bad" during consensual sex. Specifically, many participants described their experiences in negative and/or non-positive ways despite orgasm occurrence, reported that their orgasms were less pleasurable compared to other experiences, and suggested that their orgasm experiences had negative impacts on their relationships, sexuality, and/or psychological health. Participants also suggested that social location shaped their bad orgasm experiences, citing gender and sexual identity, gender identity conflict, race/ethnicity, and religion as important to their perceptions of and responses to their experiences. Results directly challenge the assumption that orgasms during consensual sex are always and/or unilaterally positive experiences.

Agency Is Everywhere, but Agency Is Not Enough: A Conceptual Analysis of Young Women's Sexual Agency

Through a conceptual analysis of sexual agency, I consider the limitations and distortions of what we typically recognize as agency and whom we recognize as agents. I argue that the dominant perspective of sexual agency as an outward performance of an internal attribute both: underestimates its presence, blinding us to the many manifestations of agency, including among girls imagined to have none; and overestimates its potency, insinuating that individual will is enough to fend off sexual vulnerability forged by social injustice. Instead, I recommend a theoretical lens that permits us to see girls' sexual agency as a matter of fact, evident even among those who are compelled by social and material conditions to exercise it through sexual compliance, compromise, and concession. Accepting sexual agency as ubiquitous among young women can help reorient attention and action away from changing girls and instead toward changing the pervasive, systemic threats to their well-being, sexual and otherwise.

The alcohol contexts of consent, wanted sex, sexual pleasure, and sexual assault: Results from a probability survey of undergraduate students

OBJECTIVE

To examine, in a probability sample of undergraduate students, characteristics of students' most recent sexual experiences (including alcohol use) as well as their experiences with nonconsensual sex.

PARTICIPANTS

In January and February 2015, 22,046 students were invited to participate in an anonymous, cross-sectional, Internet-based survey; 7,032 surveys were completed (31.9%).

METHODS

Measures included background characteristics (age, gender, sexual orientation), most recent sexual event items (sexual pleasure, wantedness, alcohol use), and experiences with nonconsensual sex (since college and lifetime).

RESULTS

Respondents reporting sober consensual sex were more likely to report higher levels of sexual pleasure and wantedness. Nonconsensual oral, vaginal, or anal penetration occurring during college were reported by 15.8% of women and 7.7% of men. Students more often told friends, partners, or family members and rarely disclosed to university faculty or police.

CONCLUSIONS

Implications for campus policy and health education are addressed.

Feeling Scared During Sex: Findings From a U.S. Probability Sample of Women and Men Ages 14 to 60

Using data from a U.S. probability survey of individuals aged 14 to 60, we aimed (1) to assess the proportion of respondents who ever reported scary sexual situations and (2) to examine descriptions of sexual experiences reported as scary. Data were cross-sectional and collected via the GfK KnowledgePanel®. Scary sexual situations were reported by 23.9% of adult women, 10.3% of adult men, 12.5% of adolescent women, and 3.8% of adolescent men who had ever engaged in oral, vaginal, or anal sex. Themes included sexual assault/rape, incest, being held down, anal sex, choking, threats, multiple people, novelty/learning, among others.

Affirmative sexual consent? Direct and unambiguous consent is rarely included in discussions of recent sexual interactions

Sexual activity typically follows an implicit sexual script or a normative sequence of behaviours that are involved in a sexual interaction. It is unclear whether or how affirmative sexual consent is incorporated in individual sexual scripts and interactions. The current research explores how sexual consent may be expressed and verified as part of individuals’ sexual interactions. Undergraduate participants from an Ontario university ( N = 92; 58 males, 34 females) completed a series of open-ended questions that asked them to describe their sexual experiences with a new and long-term partner from beginning to end. Analysis of presence of consent-related behaviours in participants’ accounts were assessed on the basis of a priori themes and extensions of these themes. Thematic analyses identified the following themes: 1) Sex proceeding with escalating intensity of nonverbal sexual behaviour, 2) Passive behaviours that do not indicate unwillingness to have sex, 3) Indirect verbal communication of interest in sex, 4) Indications that sex “just happened,” 5) Descriptions of the context in which sex occurred, and 6) Direct discussions relevant to sexual consent. Results indicated that direct discussion of sexual consent was exceedingly rare and that most sexual interactions included indirect, veiled, and coded behaviours that require inference of sexual consent or non-consent. Consent-related themes varied as a function of both participant gender (male versus female) and nature of relationship (new versus long-term). The findings of this study have implications for sexual health education, sexual assault prevention interventions, and public policy development.

Supporting the Sexual Rights of Women Living With HIV: A Critical Analysis of Sexual Satisfaction and Pleasure Across Five Relationship Types

In the context of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a focus on protecting others has overridden concern about women's own sexual well-being. Drawing on feminist theories, we measured sexual satisfaction and pleasure across five relationship types among women living with HIV in Canada. Of the 1,230 women surveyed, 38.1% were completely or very satisfied with their sexual lives, while 31.0% and 30.9% were reasonably or not very/not at all satisfied, respectively. Among those reporting recent sexual experiences (n = 675), 41.3% always felt pleasure, with the rest reporting usually/sometimes (38.7%) or seldom/not at all (20.0%). Sex did not equate with satisfaction or pleasure, as some women were completely satisfied without sex, while others were having sex without reporting pleasure. After adjusting for confounding factors, such as education, violence, depression, sex work, antiretroviral therapy, and provider discussions about transmission risk, women in long-term/happy relationships (characterized by higher levels of love, greater physical and emotional intimacy, more equitable relationship power, and mainly HIV-negative partners) had increased odds of sexual satisfaction and pleasure relative to women in all other relational contexts. Those in relationships without sex also reported higher satisfaction ratings than women in some sexual relationships. Findings put focus on women's rights, which are critical to overall well-being.

Exploring Definitions and Prevalence of Verbal Sexual Coercion and Its Relationship to Consent to Unwanted Sex: Implications for Affirmative Consent Standards on College Campuses

Campus sexual assault is a pervasive issue impacting the well-being, quality of life, and education of all students. There have been many recent efforts to prevent and address campus sexual assault, most notably the adoption of affirmative consent standards. (1) Efforts to address sexual assault on college campuses through an affirmative consent standard could be undermined by traditional gender norms, sexual scripts, and the power dynamics inherent in heterosexual relations, which lead to situations in which many women provide consent to unwanted sex. (2) Studies indicate that college women are likely to experience verbal sexual coercion, yet research has failed to come to a consensus on how to define, operationalize, and study verbal sexual coercion. (3) Research on sexual consent is also lacking, in particular as it relates to consent to unwanted sex as a result of the presence of verbal sexual coercion. (4) This article discusses how multiple forms of unwanted sex can be conceptually examined. (5) Policy implications and areas for future research are discussed.

High School Context, Heterosexual Scripts, and Young Women's Sexual Development

Adolescence is a critical period for sexual development, and previous research demonstrates that school cultures play an important role in shaping adolescent sexual behavior. However, little is known about the role of school context for developing sexual attitudes and sexual sense of self. This study explores how sexual cultures that emerge within high schools shape the sexual development of young women during the transition to adulthood. Using three waves of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a sample of 9th to 12th graders in U.S. schools in 1994-1995 who were surveyed in 1996 and in 2001 when they were 20 to 26 years old (N = 1,017), this study measures school sexual cultures using the aggregated sexual beliefs and behaviors of students within the school. Multilevel analyses are used to explore the association between these school sexual cultures and young women's sexual attitudes (perceived obstacles to using birth control, guilt and shame about sex, and expectations of sexual pleasure) in adolescence and their sexual experiences (equal initiation of sex with partner and frequent orgasm with partner) in adulthood. Overall, the results suggest that schools play an important role in young women's developing attitudes toward sex and contraception. High school sexual cultures are also associated with young women's sexual behavior in adult heterosexual relationships, as young women who attended schools with students who had higher levels of religious attendance or guilt and shame about sex were less likely to report being an equal initiator in their adult relationships. However, the relatively small impact of high school sexual cultures on young women's sexual experiences in adulthood, particularly in terms of sexual pleasure, suggests that more proximal contexts and relationships may play a more significant role in shaping their current sexual behaviors.

General population estimates of the association between college experience and the odds of forced intercourse

Sexual assault on college campuses is a pervasive problem, recently receiving increased scientific and policy attention. However, the high focus on college student experience ignores general population prevalence, trends, and differences between those with college experience and those without. We analyze measures from the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) to provide a general population view of experiences with forced intercourse. Forced intercourse is a common experience in the U.S. population, has remained stable in recent years, and varies greatly by gender, age and race. The odds of forced intercourse are also significantly higher among those with less than four years of college. This ubiquitous public health problem is not limited to college campuses. Measures from the NSFG are an important resource for understanding population rates of (and trends in) forced intercourse, providing information to guide interventions and better target scientific investigation.