Motives and decisions for and against having children among nonheterosexuals and the impact of experiences of discrimination, internalized stigma, and social acceptance

Motives for desiring children among individuals of different sexual-romantic orientations: a cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

Little is known about the reasoning behind the desire to have children in non-heterosexual individuals. This study compares the motives of different sexual-romantic orientations and their preferred ways of fulfilling this desire.

METHODS

This was a monocentric cross-sectional study. Subjects were recruited via social media, personal contacts and queer organisations in Switzerland. An anonymous questionnaire comprised general questions about the participant's background, a validated survey about the desire to have children and additional non-validated questions addressing the impact of sexual-romantic orientation on the desire to have children. The inclusion criteria were adults without children and a completed questionnaire.

RESULTS

Of 837 participants, 642 were included in the study. Four groups of sexual-romantic orientations consisted of more than 35 participants: bisexual-biromantic (n = 38), heterosexual-heteroromantic (n = 230), homosexual-homoromantic (n = 159) and pansexual-panromantic (n = 55). Subgroups with a positive wish for a child rated all motives in the same order and with minimal numeric difference. The most important aspect seemed to be emotional involvement. Non-heterosexual-heteroromantic showed concerns about adverse reactions regarding their wish for a child. All orientations hoped for a biological child.

CONCLUSION

Our findings about bi-, hetero-, homo- and pansexual people and their motives for a desire to have children agree with the existing literature about hetero, homo and bisexual. The impact of the fear of adverse reaction and discrimination has been discussed before and is supported by our data. We suggest better support before and during the realization of the wish for a child as well as support for non-traditional aspiring parents.

Romantic Attachment, Relationship Satisfaction, Internalized Sexual Stigma, and Motives for Parenthood in Italian Lesbian Women and Gay Men

This study examines romantic attachment, internalized sexual stigma, relationship satisfaction, and motives for parenthood in a sample of 313 Italian lesbian women (47.9%) and gay men (52.1%) aged 18-71 years (M = 36.2; SD = 11.9) and in same-sex relationships. The following hypotheses were tested: that romantic attachment is positively correlated with internalized stigma and motives to not have children, while it is negatively correlated with relationship satisfaction; that relationship satisfaction is negatively correlated with internalized stigma and motives for parenthood; that internalized stigma is negatively correlated with motives for parenthood; and that relationship satisfaction mediates the relationships between romantic attachment and motives for parenthood and between internalized stigma and motives for parenthood. The results strongly support the hypotheses. Furthermore, the results indicate that the lesbian participants reported lower levels of avoidance and internalized stigma and higher levels of relationship satisfaction and motives to not have children, and the participants in civil unions reported lower levels of anxiety and internalized stigma and higher levels of relationship satisfaction and motives to not have children. Taken together, our findings contribute to the growing body of research on LG parenthood and may inform social policy and psychological support for LG individuals pursuing parenthood.

The psychological burden of COVID-19 on the desire for parenthood in minoritized sexual identities: a study on depressive symptoms and family planning in Germany

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to spread across the globe and is associated with significant clinical and humanitarian burden. The desire for parenthood has been described to be positively correlated with psychological well-being: An unfulfilled wish for parenthood is associated with impaired mental health, and the wish for parenthood is a predictor for the development of depressive symptoms. While higher rates of anxiety and depression have been reported in individuals with minoritized sexual identities (compared to heterosexual individuals) during the COVID-19 pandemic, the specific impact of the pandemic and its social restriction measures on this population is poorly understood.

METHODS

From April to July 2020, we conducted an anonymous cross-sectional survey online among N = 2463 adults living in Germany. We screened for depressive symptoms (Patient Health Questionnaire-4; PHQ-4) and assessed individuals' desire for parenthood during the pandemic, and motives for or against the desire for parenthood (Leipzig questionnaire on motives for having a child, Version 20; LKM-20), with the aim of identifying differences between individuals with minoritized sexual identities and heterosexual individuals.

RESULTS

Compared to heterosexual individuals (n = 1304), individuals with minoritized sexual identities (n = 831) indicated higher levels of depressive symptoms. In our study sample the majority of all participants (81.9%) reported no change in the desire for parenthood since the COVID-19 pandemic.

CONCLUSION

The findings underline the unmet need for social, psychological and medical support in regard to family-planning and the desire for parenthood during a pandemic. Furthermore, future research should explore COVID-19-related psychological consequences on individuals' desire for parenthood and building a family.

Who Gives Birth (First) in Female Same-Sex Couples in Sweden?

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to analyze factors predicting (a) the transition to parenthood for female same-sex couples in Sweden and (b) which partner is the birth mother for the first and (any) second child.

BACKGROUND

Longitudinal studies in which couples become parents are rare for same-sex couples in any context, even though these families are increasing. Childbearing in lesbian couples is an interesting case for testing theories linked to family utility maximization and household bargaining, as these couples can often choose who will carry a child.

METHOD

Discrete-time event history and linear probability models are estimated on Swedish population register data (1995-2016) to analyze couples' transitions to first and second birth and the choice of birth mother.

RESULTS

The higher the household income and partners' educational levels, the more likely couples are to become parents. However, within-couple income gaps are small, and income and education are unrelated to the choice of first-birth mother. Couples are more likely to have a second child and to switch birth mothers if both are highly educated or the first social mother is highly educated.

CONCLUSION

Factors predicting which couples become parents are similar in same-sex and different-sex couples. In same-sex couples, short-term within-couple specialization is of little relevance for who becomes the birth mother. Analyses of the transition to a second birth suggest that long-term planning matters for who becomes the first- and second-birth mother.

O Processo de Construção e a Experiência da Parentalidade em Casais Homossexuais

Resumo Este estudo visa compreender o processo de construção e a experiência da parentalidade em quatro casais homossexuais. Foram entrevistados três casais de homens e um casal de mulheres, com idades entre 30 e 50 anos, que tinham filhos nessa relação. Os dados foram examinados por meio de uma análise qualitativa consensual (CQR), que gerou 29 categorias, resultando em quatro domínios: identidade sexual, vínculo conjugal, processo da parentalidade e exercício da parentalidade. Os resultados sugerem que a parentalidade é exercida com satisfação e responsabilidade; é um meio de inserir o casal na sociedade; é facilitada pelo apoio e complicada pelo preconceito social; caracteriza-se pela flexibilidade nos papéis parentais e prioriza a transmissão de valores de liberdade e respeito às diferenças.