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Kobets T, Smith BPC, Williams GM. Food-Borne Chemical Carcinogens and the Evidence for Human Cancer Risk. Foods 2022; 11:foods11182828. [PMID: 36140952 PMCID: PMC9497933 DOI: 10.3390/foods11182828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Commonly consumed foods and beverages can contain chemicals with reported carcinogenic activity in rodent models. Moreover, exposures to some of these substances have been associated with increased cancer risks in humans. Food-borne carcinogens span a range of chemical classes and can arise from natural or anthropogenic sources, as well as form endogenously. Important considerations include the mechanism(s) of action (MoA), their relevance to human biology, and the level of exposure in diet. The MoAs of carcinogens have been classified as either DNA-reactive (genotoxic), involving covalent reaction with nuclear DNA, or epigenetic, involving molecular and cellular effects other than DNA reactivity. Carcinogens are generally present in food at low levels, resulting in low daily intakes, although there are some exceptions. Carcinogens of the DNA-reactive type produce effects at lower dosages than epigenetic carcinogens. Several food-related DNA-reactive carcinogens, including aflatoxins, aristolochic acid, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene oxide, are recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as causes of human cancer. Of the epigenetic type, the only carcinogen considered to be associated with increased cancer in humans, although not from low-level food exposure, is dioxin (TCDD). Thus, DNA-reactive carcinogens in food represent a much greater risk than epigenetic carcinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetyana Kobets
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-914-594-3105; Fax: +1-914-594-4163
| | - Benjamin P. C. Smith
- Future Ready Food Safety Hub, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Gary M. Williams
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
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Rafiei Jam M, Nezhadali A, Kaykhaii M. Application of gas flow headspace liquid phase micro extraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for determination of 4-methylimidazole in food samples employing experimental design optimization. BMC Chem 2022; 16:29. [PMID: 35524272 PMCID: PMC9077832 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-022-00823-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background 4-Methylimidazole (4-MeI) or 4-methyl-1H-imidazole, a slightly yellowish solid with molecular formula C4H6N2, is a heterocyclic compound which supposedly does not exist as a natural product and is formed when carbohydrates are heating with ammonium compounds. This compound is used in pharmaceuticals, agriculture and photography chemicals, dyes and pigments, and rubber manufacturing. In the present study, a simple and efficient sample preparation method designated gas flow headspace liquid phase microextraction (GF-HS-SDME) was employed for the extraction and preconcentration of 4-methylimidazole (4-MeI) from food and beverage samples, before its determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Result To investigate the optimal conditions for the extraction process in GF-HS-SDME method, factors affecting extraction, including selection of extraction solvent, vial volume, extraction solvent ratio, position of extracting solvent, drop volume, sample volume, stirring speed, temperature, extraction time, sample pH, ionic strength of the sample solution and gas flow rate were optimized by utilizing both one-variable-at-a-time method and Plackett–Burman design. The investigation of protocol was carried out by using a standard solution containing 100.0 μg L−1 of 4-MeI in deionized water. Conclusion In this study, a simple and green analytical method based on GF-HS-SDME was proposed for the extraction and preconcentration of 4-MeI from foodstuffs, followed by GC–MS determination. The main advantage of this method is its high preconcentration factor and fastness due to the application of an inert gas stream during microextraction. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13065-022-00823-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdiye Rafiei Jam
- Department of Chemistry, Payame Noor University, P.O. Box 19395-4697, 19569, Tehran, Iran
| | - Azizollah Nezhadali
- Department of Chemistry, Payame Noor University, P.O. Box 19395-4697, 19569, Tehran, Iran
| | - Massoud Kaykhaii
- Department of Process Engineering and Chemical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland.
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Lu Y, Tang H, Xu J, Sun F. Toxic effects of 4-methylimidazole on the maturation and fertilization of mouse oocytes. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 164:113051. [PMID: 35460824 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Individuals of all ages, including children and teenagers, consume 4-methylimidazole (4-MI) in their food. 4-MI is a caramel-colored waste product that has previously been linked to human carcinogenesis and has shown possible signs of reproductive toxicity. This study aimed to determine whether 4-MI is harmful to oocytes during meiosis and fertilization. Female mice were intragastrically administered 0, 50, or 100 mg/kg body weight of 4-MI daily for 10 days. We found that 4-MI affects the quality of oocytes by affecting their meiotic ability and fertility potential. Specifically, 4-MI rendered the meiotic spindles and chromosomes less stable, which halted oocyte maturation and resulted in aneuploidy. 4-MI also slowed the decrease in the levels of cortical granules and their component ovastacin; consequently, sperms could not be bound and fertilization could not occur. We also found that mitochondrial dysfunction was associated with oocytes deterioration. This led to reactive oxygen species accumulation and cell death. Altogether, our findings reveal that the poor condition of oocytes subjected to 4-MI is primarily attributable to mitochondrial malfunction and redox alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajuan Lu
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hanyu Tang
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, Jiangsu, China
| | - Junjie Xu
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fei Sun
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, Jiangsu, China.
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Mehri F, Salimi A, Jamali Z, Kahrizi F, Faizi M. Exposure to 4-methylimidazole as a food pollutant induces neurobehavioral toxicity in mother and developmental impairments in the offspring. TOXIN REV 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2020.1728338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fereshteh Mehri
- Food and Drug Control Laboratory, Nutrition Heath Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Ahmad Salimi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Zhaleh Jamali
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
- Department of Addiction Studies, School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Farzad Kahrizi
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Damghan Islamic Azad University, Damghan, Iran
| | - Mehrdad Faizi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Borghoff SJ, Fitch SE, Black MB, McMullen PD, Andersen ME, Chappell GA. A systematic approach to evaluate plausible modes of actions for mouse lung tumors in mice exposed to 4-methylimidozole. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 124:104977. [PMID: 34174380 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2021.104977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The National Toxicology Program (NTP) reported that chronic dietary exposure to 4-methylimidazole (4-MeI) increased the incidence of lung adenomas/carcinomas beyond the normally high spontaneous rate in B6C3F1 mice. To examine plausible modes of action (MoAs) for mouse lung tumors (MLTs) upon exposure to high levels of 4-MeI, and their relevance in assessing human risk, a systematic approach was used to identify and evaluate mechanistic data (in vitro and in vivo) in the primary and secondary literature, along with high-throughput screening assay data. Study quality, relevance, and activity of mechanistic data identified across the evidence-base were organized according to key characteristics of carcinogens (KCCs) to identify potential key events in known or novel MLT MoAs. Integration of these evidence streams provided confirmation that 4-MeI lacks genotoxic and cytotoxic activity with some evidence to support a lack of mitogenic activity. Further evaluation of contextual and chemical-specific characteristics of 4-MeI was consequently undertaken. Due to lack of genotoxicity, along with transcriptomic and histopathological lung changes up to 28 and 90 days of exposure, the collective evidence suggests MLTs observed following exposure to high levels of 4-MeI develop at a late stage in the mouse chronic bioassay, albeit the exact MoA remains unclear.
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Wang Z, Cai R, Yang X, Gao Z, Yuan Y, Yue T. Changes in aroma components and potential Maillard reaction products during the stir-frying of pork slices. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Buczkowska M, Paciorek K, Kapcińska A, Górski M. Caramel colors in terms of scientific research, with particular
consideration of their toxicity. POSTEP HIG MED DOSW 2021. [DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0014.8497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Caramel colors, the most common food additives in the world, are divided into four classes (IIV),
marked with the symbols E150 a-d, respectively. Individual classes of caramel colors differ
from each other in physico-chemical properties and the method of preparation, which affects
the formation of various compounds that are important for the assessment of food safety A number of studies on all caramel classes of have been performed, including toxicokinetic,
genotoxic, carcinogenic and reproductive and developmental toxicity studies, which have
not shown harmful effects of these additives at doses not exceeding ADI. However, there is
an increasing number of scientific reports of the possible toxic effects present in caramels of
low-molecular compounds. Currently, three compounds are considered to be toxicologically
important and resulting from the possible concentration in the final product: 5-HMF (present
in all classes), 4(5)-MeI (present in caramel classes III and IV) or THI (present in caramel
class III). 4(5)-MeI has a neurotoxic effect and was considered in 2011 as a possible human
carcinogen (class 2B, according to IARC). In the case of THI, studies have confirmed its lymphopenic
activity, probably secondary to its immunosuppressive effect. Consequently, in the
1980s, JECFA set acceptable levels 4(5)-MeI and THI, for the caramel classes in which these
compounds may be present. The toxicity of 5-HMF has not been confirmed unequivocally,
but studies have shown that this compound is not neutral to living organisms.
Currently, most international organizations and scientific institutes recognize these additives
as safe for consumers, but at the same time scientists emphasize the need for further
research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Buczkowska
- Zakład Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu w Bytomiu, Śląski Uniwersytet Medyczny w Katowicach
| | - Kamila Paciorek
- Drugie Koło Naukowe przy Zakładzie Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień
| | - Anna Kapcińska
- Drugie Koło Naukowe przy Zakładzie Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień
| | - Michał Górski
- Szkoła Doktorska Śląskiego Uniwersytetu Medycznego w Katowicach, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu w Bytomiu Śląski Uniwersytet Medyczny
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Capriello T, Visone IM, Motta CM, Ferrandino I. Adverse effects of E150d on zebrafish development. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 147:111877. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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A weight of evidence assessment of the genotoxic potential of 4-methylimidazole as a possible mode of action for the formation of lung tumors in exposed mice. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111652. [PMID: 32745573 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
4-Methylimidazole (4-MeI) is a byproduct formed during the cooking of foods containing carbohydrates and amino acids, including the production of flavors and coloring substances, e.g., class III and IV caramel colors, used in many food products with extensive human exposure. Two-year rodent bioassays via oral exposure conducted by the National Toxicology Program reported evidence of carcinogenicity only in B6C3F1 mice (increased alveolar/bronchial neoplasms). In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified 4-MeI as Group 2B, "possibly carcinogenic to humans". An expert panel was commissioned to assess the genotoxic potential of 4-MeI and the plausibility of a genotoxic mode of action in the formation of lung tumors in mice when exposed to high doses of 4-MeI. The panel defined and used a weight-of-evidence (WOE) approach that included thorough evaluation of studies assessing the genotoxic potential of 4-MeI. The panelists categorized each study, consisting of study weight, degree of technical performance, study reliability, and contribution to the overall WOE. Based on the reviewed studies' weighted contribution, the panel unanimously concluded that the WOE supports no clear evidence of in vivo genotoxicity of 4-MeI and no association for a genotoxic mode of action in the formation of mouse lung tumors.
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Timocin T, Arslan M, Basri Ila H. Evaluation of in vitro and in vivo genotoxic and antigenotoxic effects of Rhus coriaria. Drug Chem Toxicol 2019; 44:409-417. [PMID: 30945575 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2019.1593433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Rhus coriaria has been important in the treatment of many diseases in traditional use. In this content, the genotoxic, antigenotoxic, and oxidative stress effects of methanol extract of R. coriaria (RCE) were investigated in this study. Two hundred fifty, 500, or 750 µg/mL concentrations of RCE were not found to have DNA damaging effect on pET22-b(+) plasmid and were unable to induce micronuclei in human lymphocytes (24 or 48 h treatment period). However, it did not inhibit the genotoxic effect of mitomycin-c (0.25 µg/mL). Cytotoxic effects of RCE were investigated using mitotic index (MI) and nuclear division index (NDI). Five hundred, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg concentrations of RCE did not induce chromosome aberrations in rat bone marrow cells for 12 or 24 h treatment period. In addition, 2000 mg/kg concentration of RCE showed an antigenotoxic effect by decreasing to genotoxic effect of 400 mg/kg urethane at 12 and 24 h treatment periods. RCE showed cytotoxic effects by significantly decreasing NDI. Moreover, RCE increased cytotoxic effect of Mitomycin C (MMC). However, RCE did not induce cytotoxicity in rat bone marrow cells. The highest concentration of RCE reduced total oxidant level in 12 h treatment. Interestingly, the lowest total oxidant level was found in rats blood treated with the lowest concentration RCE and urethane together. Thousand and 2000 mg/kg concentrations of RCE decreased total antioxidant levels of rat blood at 24 h treatment period. Our results showed that RCE possess cytotoxic effect in short-term treatments in vitro. However, it does not demonstrate genotoxic or cytotoxic effects in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taygun Timocin
- Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of Biology, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Arslan
- Department of Nursing, School of Health Sciences, Ardahan University, Ardahan, Turkey
| | - Hasan Basri Ila
- Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of Biology, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
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