The science and medicine of cricket: an overview and update

Sunglass tint does not impact the indoor catching performance of cricket fielders

Introduction

Sunglasses are worn by outdoor athletes such as cricketers for many reasons, including comfort and glare reduction, which may help to improve vision. Anecdotally they are purported to have performance-enhancing benefits, but there is a lack of evidence for this. Further, it appears that fielders are the only position in cricket who wear sunglasses. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the catching performance of fielders when wearing three different colour sunglasses tints during an indoor, laboratory-based experiment.

Methods

Twenty-one male cricketers currently playing for a university or amateur provincial teams in Makhanda, South Africa, who were non-habitual sunglass wearers, were recruited for this study. An optometrist administered pre-screening tests. Players had four testing sessions during which they wore a different colour tint at each session indoors (clear, blue, G30 (rose), and red). Players were required to catch 18 balls projected from a bowling machine. The number of balls caught, as well as the quality of the catch, was recorded. At the final session, they were asked which tint they thought was best.

Results

Pre-screening tests showed that the red lens was best for contrast sensitivity and stereopsis. During data collection, sunglass tint did not affect catching performance. The players perceived the red lens as the worst and the G30 as the best.

Discussion

It can be concluded that catching performance indoors is not affected by tint colour.

Foot and Ankle Injuries in Elite South African Cricketers: A Descriptive Analysis of Injury Surveillance Data

Introduction

Injury surveillance is an important part of injury risk reduction in the sporting population. This study describes the type, side (dominant or non-dominant), occurrence, impact, activity of onset, and severity of foot and ankle injuries in elite South African male and female cricketers.

Methods

Foot and ankle injuries sustained by elite cricket players between 2018 and 2021, obtained from the records of Cricket South Africa, were descriptively analysed.

Results

A total of 104 foot and ankle injuries in 82 players were recorded. The majority (n = 100; 96%) of injuries were on the non-dominant side. Bowling (n = 31; 30%) and fielding (n = 20; 19%) contributed to most injuries. The majority were first-time (n = 83; 80%) and non-impact injuries (n = 62; 60%). Fifty percent (n = 52) of injuries rendered players unable to participate in at least one match or practice session. Lateral ankle ligament injury was the most common injury sustained (n = 36; 35%).

Conclusion

The findings from this study can inform future researchers and assist healthcare service needs relating to injury risk reduction and management programmes. Effective rehabilitation programmes may reduce the risk of reinjury. Ideally, these programmes need to be role specific.

Physical profiling of international cricket players: an investigation between bowlers and batters

This study aimed to develop a physical profile of international cricketers, and investigate if positional differences exist between bowlers and batters. Nineteen, international male cricketers, eleven bowlers (age 24.1 ± 5.2 years; height 179.73 ± 5.27 cm; weight 73.64 ± 6.65 kg), and eight batters (age 22.9 ± 3.8 years; height 180.25 ± 5.57 cm; weight 77.01 ± 8.99 kg) participated in this study. The physical test battery included; power, speed, strength and aerobic fitness tests. Batters demonstrated significantly higher scores for the countermovement jump (p < 0.03; ES = -1.55) and squat jump (p < 0.03; ES = -0.98). Furthermore, batters showed non-significant but small ES for faster 0–5 m (ES = 0.40) and 0–10 m (ES = 0.35) sprint times, superior hand grip strength (ES = -0.20), and higher Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test scores (ES = -0.46). Bowlers showed non-significant but small ES for faster 5 km time trials (ES = -0.51), lower bodyweight (ES = -0.42) and lower body fat percentage (ES = -0.30). However, intra-positional (i.e., seam and spin bowlers) and individual differences amongst players were observed. The physical profiles presented in this study can be used by coaches responsible for the physical development of cricket players to compare their existing data with. Furthermore, it is recommended that practitioners account for individual physical fitness profiles in addition to team profiles, to effectively design and evaluate tailored programs, with the aim of improving both physical and cricket performance.

Predictors of throwing performance in amateur male cricketers: A musculoskeletal approach

Optimal throwing speed and accuracy is built on a complex interaction of multiple variables. Although strength and power has been associated with throwing speed in cricketers, the individual muscles that contribute to optimal function of the shoulder-complex has not been adequately explored in connection with throwing performance. Consequently, this study aimed to investigate the correlation between musculoskeletal variables and overhead throwing performance in cricketers. Thirty-two amateur male cricketers were tested using a battery of 16 tests (strength, flexibility, scapula positioning) as well as a throwing speed (TS) and a novel accuracy test (TA). Only two of the sixteen tests were correlated with throwing performance in the multiple regression analysis. Non-dominant hip abduction strength correlated positively with TS (p < 0.05): on average, a strength increase of 10 newtons (N) was associated with an increase in TS of 0.60 km/h (95% CI: 0.12-1.08). Non-dominant pectoralis minor length correlated positively with TA (p < 0.01): on average, a one-centimetre increase in the length correlated to an increase, of 0.633 points (95% CI: 0.225-1.041). This cross-sectional study demonstrated that from an array of musculoskeletal variables, only non-dominant hip abduction strength correlated with TS, while only non-dominant pectoralis minor length correlated with TA in amateur cricketers.

Adaptations of the Upper Body to Plyometric Training in Cricket Players of Different Age Groups

CONTEXT

Neuromuscular adaptations following exercise training are believed to enhance sports performance. While abundant research is available on adaptations of the lower body to plyometric training, little is known about adaptations of the upper body to plyometric training.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the effect of plyometric training on neuromuscular adaptations in cricket players of different age groups.

DESIGN

Randomized parallel group active-controlled trial.

SETTING

Research laboratory, school cricket ground, and sports complex field.

PARTICIPANTS

Fifty-nine cricket players were randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

INTERVENTIONS

The experimental group was subjected to 8 weeks of medicine ball plyometric training held thrice per week. Neuromuscular adaptations were analyzed pretraining and posttraining in 3 age groups: <18, 18-25, and >25 years. Analysis of variance was used to ascertain the training effects between and within the 6 subgroups, that is, age group <18 years (control and experimental), age group 18-25 years (control and experimental), and age group >25 years (control and experimental).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Muscle activation, upper body balance, upper body power, and muscle strength.

RESULTS

Out of 59, 55 participants completed the study. Subjects aged <18 years (adolescents) showed significantly greater improvements than those from the groups 18-25 years and >25 years (adults) on upper body balance and upper body power. Significant improvements were observed in the experimental subjects of all age groups on their muscle activity of biceps brachii, upper body balance, and upper body power following medicine ball plyometric training.

CONCLUSIONS

Though adolescent subjects were found to be more adaptive than adult subjects, experimental subjects showed significantly greater neuromuscular adaptations to medicine ball plyometric training than controls. These findings emphasize the need for coaches and athletic trainers to inculcate medicine ball plyometric exercises in training regimes of cricket players so as to improve their upper body performance.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ELECTROMYOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE UPPER LIMB MUSCLES OF CRICKET BOWLERS: RECOMMENDATIONS FROM STUDIES OF OVERHEAD-THROWING ATHLETES

The purpose of this study was twofold: (i) to review the existing literature on electromyographic (EMG) analysis of the upper limb muscles of present overhead-throwing (OT) athletes during throwing and of cricket bowlers (CBs) during cricket bowling (CB) and, (ii) to discuss the importance of and generate recommendations for the EMG assessment of the muscle activity of CBs with respect to previous studies of OT athletes. A literature search of the PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar electronic databases was performed to identify relevant articles published up to December 2012. This search was performed to evaluate the following areas, (i) what are the upper limb muscles that should be evaluated during OT sports and cricket bowling? (ii) what types of EMG methodologies have been used? (iii) what are the anthropometric, performance and physical functional variables that are usually selected? and (iv) what recommendations can be made for the assessment of the muscle activity of CBs? The search identifies 32 publications on OT athletes and 4 on CBs. The results note the following conclusions: (i) there are relatively few CB-related papers that utilize EMG, particularly for the assessment of muscle activity and coordination, (ii) a total of 22 upper limb muscles were investigated using EMG (from both criteria), (iii) surface electrodes are used more frequently than needle electrodes, (iv) most of the article normalized and analyzed the EMG amplitudes than the frequency, and the data was more often analyzed through a descriptive statistical analysis and (v) the majority of the studies analyzed the right limb of physically normal (uninjured) male's both the amateur and professional athletes that were 20 to 29 years of age. Finally, the published evidence on CBs is inadequate to validate a sound recommendation for the assessment of the muscles of CBs using EMG. However, the studies on OT athletes do provide guidelines that can be used to analyze CBs. The overall conclusion of this review show that, further studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of EMG for the assessment of the upper limb muscle of CBs to ultimately identify and prevent injury which is still a matter of discussion in the sports medicine community.

Effects of plyometric training on achilles tendon properties and shuttle running during a simulated cricket batting innings

The aim of this study was to determine whether intermittent shuttle running times (during a prolonged, simulated cricket batting innings) and Achilles tendon properties were affected by 8 weeks of plyometric training (PLYO, n = 7) or normal preseason (control [CON], n = 8). Turn (5-0-5-m agility) and 5-m sprint times were assessed using timing gates. Achilles tendon properties were determined using dynamometry, ultrasonography, and musculoskeletal geometry. Countermovement and squat jump heights were also assessed before and after training. Mean 5-0-5-m turn time did not significantly change in PLYO or CON (pre vs. post: 2.25 ± 0.08 vs. 2.22 ± 0.07 and 2.26 ± 0.06 vs. 2.25 ± 0.08 seconds, respectively). Mean 5-m sprint time did not significantly change in PLYO or CON (pre vs. post: 0.85 ± 0.02 vs. 0.84 ± 0.02 and 0.85 ± 0.03 vs. 0.85 ± 0.02 seconds, respectively). However, inferences from the smallest worthwhile change suggested that PLYO had a 51-72% chance of positive effects but only 6-15% chance of detrimental effects on shuttle running times. Jump heights only increased in PLYO (9.1-11.0%, p < 0.050). Achilles tendon mechanical properties (force, stiffness, elastic energy, strain, modulus) did not change in PLYO or CON. However, Achilles tendon cross-sectional area increased in PLYO (pre vs. post: 70 ± 7 vs. 79 ± 8 mm, p < 0.01) but not CON (77 ± 4 vs. 77 ± 5 mm, p > 0.050). In conclusion, plyometric training had possible benefits on intermittent shuttle running times and improved jump performance. Also, plyometric training increased tendon cross-sectional area, but further investigation is required to determine whether this translates to decreased injury risk.

The influence of field size, player number and rule changes on the physiological responses and movement demands of small-sided games for cricket training

This study investigated the physiological responses and movement demands associated with modified versions of small-sided games for cricket training, termed 'Battlezone'. Eleven (22.2 ± 3.6 years; 1.80 ± 0.06 m; 81.7 ± 11.4 kg) male, cricket players volunteered to perform each of four modified 8-over scenarios of Battlezone. Modifications to Battlezone included reducing the field size, removal of a fielder, a combination of these modifications and additional rule changes. Heart rate, blood lactate concentration, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the movement patterns of participants were measured during each scenario. The total distances covered per 8-over bout ranged from 626 ± 335 m for wicketkeepers to 1795 ± 457 m for medium-fast bowlers; although similar distances (P > 0.05) were covered within positions between the four different scenarios. Between scenarios, the greatest mean speed, heart rate and blood lactate responses occurred when the rules were changed, resulting in increased movement patterns (P < 0.05), most notably for batsmen and wicketkeepers. In contrast, altering the playing field size or player number did not significantly influence (P > 0.05) these responses. These results suggest that the physical demands of cricket-specific training can be increased via rule variations including hit-and-run activities, more so than field size or player number.

Are current coaching recommendations for cricket batting technique supported by biomechanical research?

Coaching manuals are an invaluable tool for coaches, used in player skill and technique development, especially at grass-roots level. Commonly developed by former players and coaches, this information is generally based on anecdotal evidence and in general lacks the scientific rigour of a peer-reviewed journal. Thus there is a need to establish the level of agreement and support between the coaching and biomechanical literature. In doing so, evidence-based coaching practices can be optimally developed. Moreover, this will ensure the technique and skill development practices implemented at grass-roots level are supported by successful performance in the later stages of player development. The purpose of this review was to evaluate the latest batting biomechanics research, providing a comprehensive and up-to-date insight into the kinematic and kinetic aspects of batting in cricket. Furthermore, this review compared and contrasted this research with a selection of coaching literature, establishing a strong level of support and agreement between the coaching and biomechanical literature in recommendations for cricket batting technique. Although the ambiguity in a number of coaching concepts still exists, coaches and players can be confident in the successful implementation of both sources of information in a player's technical development.

Habitual throwing and swimming correspond with upper limb diaphyseal strength and shape in modern human athletes

Variation in upper limb long bone cross-sectional properties may reflect a phenotypically plastic response to habitual loading patterns. Structural differences between limb bones have often been used to infer past behavior from hominin remains; however, few studies have examined direct relationships between behavioral differences and bone structure in humans. To help address this, cross-sectional images (50% length) of the humeri and ulnae of university varsity-level swimmers, cricketers, and controls were captured using peripheral quantitative computed tomography. High levels of humeral robusticity were found in the dominant arms of cricketers, and bilaterally among swimmers, whereas the most gracile humeri were found in both arms of controls, and the nondominant arms of cricketers. In addition, the dominant humeri of cricketers were more circular than controls. The highest levels of ulnar robusticity were also found in the dominant arm of cricketers, and bilaterally amongst swimmers. Bilateral asymmetry in humeral rigidity among cricketers was greater than swimmers and controls, while asymmetry for ulnar rigidity was greater in cricketers than controls. The results suggest that more mechanically loaded upper limb elements--unilaterally or bilaterally--are strengthened relative to less mechanically loaded elements, and that differences in mechanical loading may have a more significant effect on proximal compared to distal limb segments. The more circular humerus in the dominant arm in cricketers may be an adaptation to torsional strain associated with throwing activities. The reported correspondence between habitual activity patterns and upper limb diaphyseal properties may inform future behavioral interpretations involving hominin skeletal remains.

Information-movement coupling in developing cricketers under changing ecological practice constraints

Changing informational constraints of practice, such as when using ball projection machines, has been shown to significantly affect movement coordination of skilled cricketers. To date, there has been no similar research on movement responses of developing batters, an important issue since ball projection machines are used heavily in cricket development programmes. Timing and coordination of young cricketers (n=12, age=15.6+/-0.7years) were analyzed during the forward defensive and forward drive strokes when facing a bowling machine and bowler (both with a delivery velocity of 28.14+/-0.56ms(-1)). Significant group performance differences were observed between the practice task constraints, with earlier initiation of the backswing, front foot movement, downswing, and front foot placement when facing the bowler compared to the bowling machine. Peak height of the backswing was higher when facing the bowler, along with a significantly larger step length. Altering the informational constraints of practice caused major changes to the information-movement couplings of developing cricketers. Data from this study were interpreted to emanate from differences in available specifying variables under the distinct practice task constraints. Considered with previous findings, results confirmed the need to ensure representative batting task constraints in practice, cautioning against an over-reliance on ball projection machines in cricket development programmes.

Time-motion analysis of first-class cricket fielding

This study aimed to quantify player movements during first-class cricket fielding. Using real-time computerised time-motion analysis the entire on-field activities of 27 in-fielders were observed for 10-over periods; 9 during each of the morning, afternoon and evening sessions of first-class cricket. In addition 8 first-class cricketers performed 15m speed trials between timing gates to provide velocity multipliers for distance estimation. Overall, players changed movement every 6.4+/-1.1s (mean+/-S.D.) and fielded the ball 0.5+/-0.4 times per over. Stationary and walking activity represented 94.2+/-2.4% of match time. High-intensity (HI) activity represented 1.6+/-0.8% of match time with mean burst and recovery durations of 1.3+/-0.3 and 99.8+/-94.5s, respectively. Repeated HI bouts (at least 3 bursts with less than 21s mean recovery) occurred 1.2 times per 10-over period. Fielders covered an estimated 15.5km per day. In conclusion, first-class fielding entails less HI activity than other team sports such as soccer and hockey. However, fielders are required to cover large distances in a day, but over 77% of these distances are covered by walking.

Time-motion analysis of Test and One-Day international cricket centuries

The aim of this study was to quantify movement patterns of batsmen scoring 100 runs (century), including analysis at 50, 80, and 100 runs, in Test and One-Day international (one-day) matches and between the first and second 50 within a Test century. Test centuries (n = 13) and one-day scores above 80 (n = 12) filmed during the 2005 - 2006 Australian international season were analysed for movement patterns of standing, walking, jogging, striding, sprinting, shot playing, and turning. At each run target, differences in total time, duration of individual movement pattern, movement pattern frequency, and number of balls faced were determined between Test and one-day matches (analysis of variance). Differences within Test centuries were assessed using paired t-tests. A similar fractional predominance of time spent in low-intensity activity (standing and walking) between Test and one-day matches at each run target (94 and 96% respectively) was observed, with no differences in duration of striding or sprinting (Test: 1.1 min, s = 0.5; one-day: 0.9 min, s = 0.5 for sprinting: P = 0.28). A 37% longer total duration occurred in Tests, resulting in longer recovery bouts between high-intensity efforts. There were no differences between the first and second 50 runs of a Test century for any measure (P at best = 0.34). In summary, Test and one-day centuries are characterized by much low-intensity activity and patterns of high-intensity activity similar to many repeat-sprint team sports and greater recovery breaks in longer matches.