Mechanisms of attentional cueing during observational learning to facilitate motor skill acquisition

Examining Single Session Peer-Teaching Instructional Approaches on Pre-Service Physical Education Teachers' Throwing Techniques

An important role of a Physical Education (PE) teacher is to assist students to develop the fundamental motor skills (FMS) that will allow them to participate in physical activities with competence and confidence. Thus, PE teachers require the knowledge and skills to carry out this crucial task. In the crowded curricula of Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs, there are limited opportunities for pre-service PE teachers to learn how to analyze and perform a large list of motor skills. Our purposes in this study were to determine whether a single session peer-teaching intervention could improve pre-service PE teachers' short-term non-dominant hand overarm throwing performances and to examine these students' perceptions of the interventions. We allocated 47 pre-service PE teaching students (24 males; 23 females) to one of three experimental groups: a Video Analysis Group (VAG; n = 17), a Verbal Group (VG; n = 19), and a Control Group (CG; n = 11), based on the class in which they were enrolled. VAG and VG participants worked with a partner of their choice in reciprocal peer-teaching to improve each other's non-dominant hand throwing technique. VAG and VG interventions were identical except that VAG participants accessed video analysis technology. CG participants completed unrelated course work that involved no overarm throwing activities. A single 20-minute session of peer teaching with video analysis feedback during practice led to rapid enhancements in non-dominant hand overarm throwing skills. While all three groups improved their performance by retention testing, participants in the VAG group improved most quickly. Participants in both the VAG and VG groups reported that their respective interventions improved their throwing and Qualitative Movement Diagnosis (QMD) skills. Based on these results, we suggest that PETE programs integrate peer-teaching and video analysis sessions into fundamental movement courses to accelerate students' motor skill acquisitions.

Effectiveness of Video Modeling in Improving Technical Skills in Young Novice Basketball Players: A Quasi-Experimental Study

(1) Objective: This is a quasi-experimental study that investigated the effect of four weeks of training sessions using video modeling (VM) on individual and collective technical skills in young novice basketball players. (2) Method: 20 players were equally assigned to either a control group (CG, n = 10; 12 ± 0.7 years) or a video modeling group (VMG, n = 10; 12.5 ± 0.5 years; visualizing videos before each session) were assessed before and after the four-week training period using the Basketball Skill Test of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance for individual techniques and three vs. three small-sided games for collective aspects. (3) Results: For the passing test, VMG induced higher performance than CG (p = 0.021; d = 0.87). For offensive balls post-intervention, higher values were recorded for VMG compared to CG (p = 0.003; d = 1.81). In addition, the number of attack balls index post-intervention was higher for VMG compared to CG (p = 0.001; d = 0.28). For losing the ball, VMG induced lower values than CG after the training intervention (p < 0.001; d = -3.23). The efficiency index was higher post-training compared to pre-training for VMG (p = 0.013; d = 1.24). (4) Conclusion: The study highlighted the importance of using video modeling as an effective strategy to improve technical skills and collective performance in novice young basketball players.

Effects of attentional focus and gaze instruction during observational learning of a basketball free-throw

Observational learning has long been used to instruct individuals on how to perform a novice motor skill. Recently, research has shown a benefit to instructing learners to focus externally when viewing a video model (Asadi, Aiken, Heidari, & Kochackpour, 2021). Research has also highlighted the effectiveness of modeling correct gaze behaviors when learning a cognitive task (Jarodzka, van Gog, Dorr, Scheiter, & Gerjets, 2013). The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of combining these two modalities. 40 individuals with a mean age of 21.77 ± 1.40 performed a novel motor task where they were asked to either focus internally or externally, and were provided with traditional instruction or were provided with an experienced performer's gaze behaviors while viewing a video demonstration. It was observed that both the external focus groups and the gaze instructed groups performed a basketball free-throw more accurately and had longer periods of quiet eye than an internal focus or traditional verbal instruction (p's < 0.05). Eye tracking also allowed for the assessment of attentional focus adherence. Participants focused on the instructed cues significantly more than irrelevant task aspects or a different focus types (p's < 0.05). These results highlight the effectiveness of cuing a learner to focus externally during observational learning. It also highlights the usefulness of providing correct gaze behaviors when observing a model.

Instructions on Task Constraints Mediate Perceptual-Motor Search and How Movement Variability Relates to Performance Outcome

Movement variability has been postulated to afford perception of the perceptual motor workspace and to be directly linked to improved performance. Here, we investigated how instructions mediate the search process and the relation between performance outcome and movement variability. We used a novel bimanual force tracking task where zero error was achieved via proportional output between the hands. Participants were either instructed or not as to how to coordinate their force output to achieve this goal, but the goal to minimize error was explained to all participants. The provision of instructions restricted the overall area of the task space that was searched. Moreover, the time dependent properties of the search were influenced; where instructions increased the likelihood that participants would produce a higher force level over practice. Multiple regression revealed that variability was positively correlated with performance outcome, but the strength of this relation was dependent on instructions and individual search strategies. The findings are consistent with the view that information through instructions shapes individual emergent perceptual-motor search strategies that in turn mediate how movement variability relates to performance outcome.

Bottom-up and top-down modulation of route selection in imitation

The cognitive system selects the most appropriate action imitative process: a semantic process - relying on long-term memory representations for known actions, and low-level visuomotor transformations for unknown actions. These two processes work in parallel; however, how context regularities and cognitive control modulate them is unclear. In this study, process selection was triggered contextually by presenting mixed known and new actions in predictable or unpredictable lists, while a cue on the forthcoming action triggered top-down control. Known were imitated faster than the new actions in the predictable lists only. Accuracy was higher and reaction times faster in the uncued conditions, and the predictable faster than the unpredictable list in the uncued condition only. In the latter condition, contextual factors modulate process selection, as participants use statistical regularities to perform the task at best. With the cue, the cognitive system tries to control response selection, resulting in more errors and longer reaction times.

Providing Task Instructions During Motor Training Enhances Performance and Modulates Attentional Brain Networks

Learning a new motor task is a complex cognitive and motor process. Especially early during motor learning, cognitive functions such as attentional engagement, are essential, e.g., to discover relevant visual stimuli. Drawing participant's attention towards task-relevant stimuli-e.g., with task instructions using visual cues or explicit written information-is a common practice to support cognitive engagement during training and, hence, accelerate motor learning. However, there is little scientific evidence about how visually cued or written task instructions affect attentional brain networks during motor learning. In this experiment, we trained 36 healthy participants in a virtual motor task: surfing waves by steering a boat with a joystick. We measured the participants' motor performance and observed attentional brain networks using alpha-band electroencephalographic (EEG) activity before and after training. Participants received one of the following task instructions during training: (1) No explicit task instructions and letting participants surf freely (implicit training; IMP); (2) Task instructions provided through explicit visual cues (explicit-implicit training; E-IMP); or (3) through explicit written commands (explicit training; E). We found that providing task instructions during training (E and E-IMP) resulted in less post-training motor variability-linked to enhanced performance-compared to training without instructions (IMP). After training, participants trained with visual cues (E-IMP) enhanced the alpha-band strength over parieto-occipital and frontal brain areas at wave onset. In contrast, participants who trained with explicit commands (E) showed decreased fronto-temporal alpha activity. Thus, providing task instructions in written (E) or using visual cues (E-IMP) leads to similar motor performance improvements by enhancing activation on different attentional networks. While training with visual cues (E-IMP) may be associated with visuo-attentional processes, verbal-analytical processes may be more prominent when written explicit commands are provided (E). Together, we suggest that training parameters such as task instructions, modulate the attentional networks observed during motor practice and may support participant's cognitive engagement, compared to training without instructions.

Effects of sensory cues on dynamic trunk control in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy

Background:There is a lack of evidence whether the combined visual and verbal cues could improve dynamic trunk control in the sitting position in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy (SDCP). Objective:To investigate the immediate effects of visual, verbal, and combined visual and verbal cues on dynamic trunk control in the sitting position in children with and without SDCP. Methods:Twenty children with SDCP and 20 typically developing (TD) children aged eight to 12 years in sitting positions maneuvered their trunks to lean forward, backward, to the left, and to the right under conditions of no sensory cues, visual cues, verbal cues, and combined visual and verbal cues. Dynamic trunk control in the sitting position was assessed using the center of force (CoF) trajectory and limit of stability (LOS). Results:Verbal cues and combined visual and verbal cues could improve CoF trajectories in the forward, backward, and leftward directions in TD children and children with SDCP. Combined visual and verbal cues could improve the LOS in both groups. Conclusion:This study provides evidence that combined visual and verbal cues are more effective at enhancing dynamic trunk control than either visual or verbal cues alone in TD children and children with SDCP.

Observational vs coaching feedback on non-dominant whole-body motor skill performance - application to technique training

We studied the effect of peer- and self-observational feedback versus coaching feedback during technique training on performance in competitive adolescent cross-country skiers. Fifty-four skiers (14.3 ± 0.6 years) were divided into a control group and three intervention groups (dyad practice, video, or coaching feedback), which practiced in the asymmetrical uphill sub-technique G2 on one side (non-dominant side), but not the other (dominant side) for 6 × 30 min over a 5 weeks period, on roller skis outdoors. High-speed performance and skiing economy were assessed on a roller ski treadmill before and after the intervention, and a questionnaire was answered post-intervention. The video feedback (p = .025, d = .65) and coaching feedback (p = .007, d = .89) groups improved high-speed performance during the intervention and an ANCOVA showed a tendency for different change scores between interventions (F_3,49  = 2.5, p = .068, η p 2  = .134), with a difference between the coaching feedback and dyad practice (p = .05). No change was seen in skiing economy in any group. Coaching feedback ranked higher on enjoyment compared with dyad practice (p < .001) and led to higher self-perception of improved technique compared with the control group (p = .038). Overall, feedback from a competent coach seems better than observation for improving performance in young athletes, although self-observation through video with attentional cues seems a promising tool for increasing individual feedback when coaching large groups.

The effect of attentional instructions during modeling on gaze behavior and throwing accuracy in 7 to 10 year-old children

Research has shown the effectiveness of attentional instructions and observation on the performance and learning in children. However, there is little research on the effects of instruction that manipulates attentional focus during observation. The purpose of the study was to investigate performance following instructions that directed an individual to focus internally or externally during the viewing of a model. Eye tracking was also used to investigate the visual search strategy under different instructional groups. 24 children between the ages of 7 and 10 years were randomly divided into an internal (IFM) or external (EFM) modeling group. Children performed a 10-trial pre-test to measure throwing accuracy and quiet eye duration (QED). Following pre-test, children observed a model performing the correct overarm throw 10 times while eye movement was recorded. They then performed a 10-trial post-test. Results revealed that both groups improved accuracy from pre-test to post-test (p < .001) and increased QED from pre- to post-test (p < .001). It was also observed that EFM had greater accuracy and (p = .01) and longer QED (p < .001) than IFM during post-testing. Evidence was also observed for adherence to the attentional focus strategy as EFM and IFM looked more frequently at the specific cue provided (p < .001). Directing visual attention to the movement effects while observing a model significantly benefits motor performance and learning in children. Changing the focus of instruction to an external focus improved both throwing accuracy and increased QED.

Distance Motor Learning during the COVID-19 Induced Confinement: Video Feedback with a Pedagogical Activity Improves the Snatch Technique in Young Athletes

The purpose of the present study was to investigate which of two strategies, Video Feedback with Pedagogical Activity (VF-PA) or Video Feedback (VF), would be more beneficial for the remote error correction of the snatch weightlifting technique during the confinement period. Thirty-five school aged children with at least three months of weightlifting experience were randomized to one of three training conditions: VF-PA, VF or the Control group (CONT). Subjects underwent test sessions one week before (T0) and one day after (T1) a six-session training period and a retention test session a week later (T2). During each test session, the Kinovea version 0.8.15 software measured the kinematic parameters of the snatch performance. Following distance learning sessions (T1), the VF-PA improved various kinematic parameters (i.e., barbell horizontal displacements, maximum height, looping and symmetry) compared with T0 (p < 0.5; Cohen's d = 0.58-1.1). Most of these improvements were maintained during the retention test (T2) (p<0.01, Cohen's d = 1.2-1.3) when compared withT0. However, the VF group improved only twoparameters (i.e., barbell symmetry and horizontal displacement) at T1 (p < 0.05; Cohen's d = 0.9), which were not maintained at T2. Better horizontal displacement and looping values were registered during the retention test in the VF-PA group compared with theCONT group (p < 0.05, Cohen's d = 1.49-1.52). The present findings suggest combining video feedback with pedagogical activity during the pandemic induced online coaching or physical education to improve movement learning in school aged children.

The effects of verbal cueing for high intended movement velocity on power, neuromuscular activation, and performance

It is widely believed that lifting heavy loads slowly, but with a conscious intention to move at high velocity, can produce resistance training (RT) adaptations indicative of rapid movements. This study investigated the effects of verbally cued high "intended" movement velocity (HIMV) during RT on neuromuscular and performance outcomes. 20 untrained volunteers (aged 24.2 ± 3.9 years) participated in 3 weeks of knee extension training. Participants were randomly allocated to receive verbal cues focusing on high intended movement velocity, HIMV, or steady and controlled movement, TRAD (traditional training). All other training variables, including actual movement velocity (30° s^-1 ), remained constant. Increase in mean power output at 30° s^-1 was greater for TRAD than HIMV (76% and 33%, respectively, P = 0.027). There were main effects for time (but no between-group differences) for maximal isometric force (+14%, P = 0.003), peak torque at 180° s^-1 (+22%, P = 0.006), peak torque at 30° s^-1 (+29%, P < 0.001), 3-repetition maximum (+20%, P < 0.001), and resting corticospinal excitability (+43%, P = 0.017). There were no differences between groups or across time for voluntary activation (P = 0.793), spinal excitability (P = 0.686), or intracortical inhibition (all P > 0.05). HIMV verbal cueing did not produce additional neurophysiological or performance benefits when compared to traditional cueing. Overall, our results demonstrated that verbal cueing did not alter the principle of velocity-specific adaptation. Cueing that increases the duration of maximal effort may be optimal for maximizing average power output at low speeds.

Revisiting the Applied Model for the Use of Observation: A Review of Articles Spanning 2011-2018

Purpose: To provide a review of current articles that have used observation interventions to enhance motor skill acquisition or performance of applied tasks, and to situate the research within the Applied Model for the Use of Observation (AMUO) with the goal of forming a basis for evidence-based guidelines for practitioners. Method: Key words (e.g., observation/modeling) were searched in varied data bases (e.g., Google Scholar/PubMed), along with a citation search of the relevant AMUO article, to generate a pool of articles for possible review. Selection criteria included publication between 2011 and 2018, and that the research focus was on the effects of an observation intervention on the acquisition or performance of an applied motor task. Results: Forty-eight articles were reviewed, with 21 of these targeting the basic question of whether observation is effective, and the remaining pertaining to the What, When, Who, and How features of the AMUO. The effectiveness of observation interventions was not only affirmed, but also extended to a wider scope of populations and settings. Greater insight into the necessary information with respect to the demonstration (what) and whether it should be before, after, or during physical practice (when) was obtained. As well, advantages of combining model types (who) and providing control to the learner (how) were reported. Conclusions: While more clarity was brought to certain features of the AMUO that could be used to provide evidence-based guidelines, more research is needed to fully inform practitioners for the effective use of observation interventions.

Assessing the influence of culture on craft skills: A quantitative study with expert Nepalese potters

Studies have documented that traditional motor skills (i.e. motor habits) are part of the cultural way of life that characterises each society. Yet, it is still unclear to what extent motor skills are inherited through culture. Drawing on ethnology and motor behaviour, we addressed this issue through a detailed description of traditional pottery skills. Our goal was to quantify the influence of three kinds of constraints: the transcultural constraints of wheel-throwing, the cultural constraints induced via cultural transmission, and the potters' individual constraints. Five expert Nepalese potters were invited to produce three familiar pottery types, each in five specimens. A total of 31 different fashioning hand positions were identified. Most of them (14) were cross-cultural, ten positions were cultural, five positions were individual, and two positions were unique. Statistical tests indicated that the subset of positions used by the participants in this study were distinct from those of other cultural groups. Behaviours described in terms of fashioning duration, number of gestures, and hand position repertoires size highlighted both individual and cross-cultural traits. We also analysed the time series of the successive hand positions used throughout the fashioning of each vessel. Results showed, for each pottery type, strong reproducible sequences at the individual level and a clearly higher level of variability between potters. Overall, our findings confirm the existence of a cultural transmission in craft skills but also demonstrated that the skill is not fully determined by a cultural marking. We conclude that the influence of culture on craft skills should not be overstated, even if its role is significant given the fact that it reflects the socially transmitted part of the skill. Such research offers insights into archaeological problems in providing a representative view of how cultural constraints influence the motor skills implied in artefact manufacturing.

The patterning of local variability during the acquisition of a novel whole-body continuous motor skill in young adults

There is increasing evidence that movement variability during motor skill acquisition plays a functional role. Specifically, initial variability might represent exploration of the possible motor space for solutions and error identification. Following practice, individuals might exploit a reduced amount of motor solutions to execute the task. While this variability pattern has been supported during discrete upper limb and multi-finger force tasks, there is a paucity of evidence for continuous whole-body motor tasks. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to characterize the role of variability during the acquisition of a whole-body continuous motor task across practice sessions in young adults. Twelve young adults aged 18-35-years participated in this study. Subjects practiced a novel, sagittal plane task, the kettlebell swing, using an online training video. We conducted an uncontrolled manifold analysis to partition local variability of the configuration of the kettlebell and body segments based on their impact on the position of the center-of-mass (COM) in the sagittal plane. Our results demonstrated that following initial practice, variability that did not affect the COM position remained elevated, suggesting sustained exploration of motor solutions. Following multiple practice sessions, variability related to motor solutions decreased, potentially indicating exploitation. The results from this study support the proposal that young adults initially utilize a range of motor solutions when acquiring a whole-body motor skill, followed by exploitation of stereotypic movement.

A Framework for the Testing and Validation of Simulated Environments in Experimentation and Training

New computer technologies, like virtual reality (VR), have created opportunities to study human behavior and train skills in novel ways. VR holds significant promise for maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of skill learning in a variety of settings (e.g., sport, medicine, safety-critical industries) through immersive learning and augmentation of existing training methods. In many cases the adoption of VR for training has, however, preceded rigorous testing and validation of the simulation tool. In order for VR to be implemented successfully for both training and psychological experimentation it is necessary to first establish whether the simulation captures fundamental features of the real task and environment, and elicits realistic behaviors. Unfortunately evaluation of VR environments too often confuses presentation and function, and relies on superficial visual features that are not the key determinants of successful training outcomes. Therefore evidence-based methods of establishing the fidelity and validity of VR environments are required. To this end, we outline a taxonomy of the subtypes of fidelity and validity, and propose a variety of practical methods for testing and validating VR training simulations. Ultimately, a successful VR environment is one that enables transfer of learning to the real-world. We propose that key elements of psychological, affective and ergonomic fidelity, are the real determinants of successful transfer. By adopting an evidence-based approach to VR simulation design and testing it is possible to develop valid environments that allow the potential of VR training to be maximized.

The Effects of Instruction Manipulation on Motor Performance Following Action Observation

The effects of action observation (AO) on motor performance can be modulated by instruction. The effects of two top-down aspects of the instruction on motor performance have not been fully resolved: those related to attention to the observed task and the incorporation of motor imagery (MI) during AO. In addition, the immediate vs. 24-h retention test effects of those instruction’s aspects are yet to be elucidated. Forty-eight healthy subjects were randomly instructed to: (1) observe reaching movement (RM) sequences toward five lighted units with the intention of reproducing the same sequence as fast and as accurate as possible (Intentional + Attentional group; AO+At); (2) observe the RMs sequence with the intention of reproducing the same sequence as fast and as accurate as possible and simultaneously to the observation to imagine performing the RMs (Intentional + attentional + MI group; AO+At+MI); and (3) observe the RMs sequence (Passive AO group). Subjects’ performance was tested before and immediately after the AO and retested after 24 h. During each of the pretest, posttest, and retest, the subject performed RMs toward the units that were activated in the same order as the observed sequence. Occasionally, the sequence order was changed by beginning the sequence with a different activated unit. The outcome measures were: averaged response time of the RMs during the sequences, difference between the response time of the unexpected and expected RMs and percent of failures to reach the target within 1 s. The averaged response time and the difference between the response time of the unexpected and expected RMs were improved in all groups at posttest compared to pretest, regardless of instruction. Averaged response time was improved in the retest compared to the posttest only in the Passive AO group. The percent of failures across groups was higher in pretest compared to retest. Our findings suggest that manipulating top-down aspects of instruction by adding attention and MI to AO in an RM sequence task does not improve subsequent performance more than passive observation. Off-line learning of the sequence in the retention test was improved in comparison to posttest following passive observation only.

Instructions to attend to an observed action increase imitation in autistic adults

This study investigated whether reduced visual attention to an observed action might account for altered imitation in autistic adults. A total of 22 autistic and 22 non-autistic adults observed and then imitated videos of a hand producing sequences of movements that differed in vertical elevation while their hand and eye movements were recorded. Participants first performed a block of imitation trials with general instructions to imitate the action. They then performed a second block with explicit instructions to attend closely to the characteristics of the movement. Imitation was quantified according to how much participants modulated their movement between the different heights of the observed movements. In the general instruction condition, the autistic group modulated their movements significantly less compared to the non-autistic group. However, following instructions to attend to the movement, the autistic group showed equivalent imitation modulation to the non-autistic group. Eye movement recording showed that the autistic group spent significantly less time looking at the hand movement for both instruction conditions. These findings show that visual attention contributes to altered voluntary imitation in autistic individuals and have implications for therapies involving imitation as well as for autistic people's ability to understand the actions of others.

Search Strategies in the Perceptual-Motor Workspace and the Acquisition of Coordination, Control, and Skill

In this paper we re-visit and elaborate-on the theoretical framework of learning as searching within the perceptual-motor workspace for a solution to the task. The central focus is the nature of search strategies to locate and create stable equilibrium regions in the perceptual-motor workspace and how these strategies relate to the emergent movement forms in the acquisition of coordination, control, and skill. In the ecological theory of perception and action, the enhanced stability of performance occurs through the attunement of the perceptual systems to the task dynamics together with modifications of action as task and intrinsic dynamics cooperate and/or compete. Thus, through practice in this search process, individuals adapt to the pick-up of task relevant perceptual variables and change their movement form according to the stability of the performed action and its outcome in relation to the task demands. Contemporary experimental findings have revealed features of the search process given the interaction of individual intrinsic dynamics in the context of task requirements and principles that drive the change – e.g., exploitation of more tolerant task-space solutions and emergence of compensatory mechanisms. Finally, we outline how the search strategy framework relates to traditional learning-related phenomena: including the dynamical pathways of learning, learning curves, factors of learning, individuality, motor development, and sport and rehabilitation interventions.

Principles of Motor Learning in Classical Singing Teaching

INTRODUCTION

Classical singing is a complex and multifaceted skill that requires the amalgamation of multiple cognitive, perceptual and motor functions. The teaching of classical singing is consequently a unique skill that holds further complexity. The singer is required to achieve and maintain consistently high performance development of a specific motor activity, much like the sports athlete. This pilot study examines a method of using the principles of motor learning to more objectively and reliably investigate the teaching behaviors of classical singing teachers. Such a method may establish a nexus between empirical research, teaching quality and learning outcomes in music performance education.

METHOD

A total of 12 participants were recruited from two Australian conservatoria of music. All participants were fluent in English at tertiary level. Participants included four classical singing teachers and eight classical singing students over the age of 18 years. Eight one-to-one singing lessons between the teacher and student were audio-visually recorded. Content analysis was conducted on the observational data. The principles of motor learning were used as a behavioral framework protocol to allow for the systematic identification of teaching behavior.

RESULTS

Results presented various findings regarding teaching behaviors in one-to-one classical singing lessons in higher music education. Key findings included (a) common use of instruction, feedback, modeling, and other behaviors (b) uncommon use of motivation, explanation, and perceptual training behaviors, (c) higher use of knowledge of results than knowledge of performance feedback behaviors, (d) high routine use of instruction, modeling, and feedback behaviors each time a student attempted a task, (e) common use of other suggested teachers use behaviors unidentifiable by the behavioral protocol, and (f) the principles of motor learning appear to be a reliable framework for the identification of teaching behaviors in this field.

CONCLUSION

This study may have implications for how teachers administer and govern their behaviors in one-to-one classical singing lessons. The principles of motor learning may encourage a nexus between empirical research, teaching quality, and learning outcomes. Furthermore, this study provides recommendations for future research on systematically improving teaching and learning in this field.

Action observation for sensorimotor learning in surgery

Background

Acquiring new motor skills to learn complex movements and master the use of a diverse range of instruments is fundamental for developing expertise in surgery. Although aspects of skill development occur through trial and error, watching the performance of another individual (action observation) is an increasingly important adjunct for the acquisition of these complex skills before performing a procedure. The aim of this review was to examine the evidence in support of the use of action observation in surgery.

Methods

A narrative review of observational learning for surgical motor skills was undertaken. Searches of PubMed and PsycINFO databases were performed using the terms ‘observational learning’ OR ‘action observation’ AND ‘motor learning’ OR ‘skill learning’.

Results

Factors such as the structure of physical practice, the skill level of the demonstrator and the use of feedback were all found to be important moderators of the effectiveness of observational learning. In particular, observation of both expert and novice performance, cueing attention to key features of the task, and watching the eye movements of expert surgeons were all found to enhance the effectiveness of observation. It was unclear, however, whether repeated observations were beneficial for skill learning. The evidence suggests that these methods can be employed to enhance surgical training curricula.

Conclusion

Observational learning is an effective method for learning surgical skills. An improved understanding of observational learning may further inform the refinement and use of these methods in contemporary surgical training curricula.

The Effects of Self-Observation When Combined With a Skilled Model on the Learning of Gymnastics Skills

In this experiment, we examined whether self-observation, via video replay, coupled with the viewing of a skilled model was better for motor skill learning than the use of self-observation alone. Twenty-one female gymnasts participated in a within design experiment in which two gymnastics skills were learned. One skill was practiced in conjunction with the self-observation/skilled model pairing and the other with only self-observation. The experiment unfolded over five sessions in which pre-test, baseline, acquisition, retention, and post-test scores were obtained. Analysis of the physical performance scores revealed a significant Condition ×Session interaction in which it was shown that there were no differences between the intervention conditions at baseline and early in acquisition; but, later in acquisition, those skills practiced with the self-observation/skilled model pairing were executed significantly better than those with only self-observation. Also, an error identification test showed that participants had significantly higher response sensitivity scores for those skills learned with the paired intervention compared to self-observation alone. These results suggest that pairing self-observation with a skilled model is better in a gymnastic setting than self-observation alone.

The effect of observing novice and expert performance on acquisition of surgical skills on a robotic platform

BACKGROUND

Observational learning plays an important role in surgical skills training, following the traditional model of learning from expertise. Recent findings have, however, highlighted the benefit of observing not only expert performance but also error-strewn performance. The aim of this study was to determine which model (novice vs. expert) would lead to the greatest benefits when learning robotically assisted surgical skills.

METHODS

120 medical students with no prior experience of robotically-assisted surgery completed a ring-carrying training task on three occasions; baseline, post-intervention and at one-week follow-up. The observation intervention consisted of a video model performing the ring-carrying task, with participants randomly assigned to view an expert model, a novice model, a mixed expert/novice model or no observation (control group). Participants were assessed for task performance and surgical instrument control.

RESULTS

There were significant group differences post-intervention, with expert and novice observation groups outperforming the control group, but there were no clear group differences at a retention test one week later. There was no difference in performance between the expert-observing and error-observing groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Similar benefits were found when observing the traditional expert model or the error-strewn model, suggesting that viewing poor performance may be as beneficial as viewing expertise in the early acquisition of robotic surgical skills. Further work is required to understand, then inform, the optimal curriculum design when utilising observational learning in surgical training.

A literature review on observational learning for medical motor skills and anesthesia teaching

Motor skill practice is very important to improve performance of medical procedures and could be enhanced by observational practice. Observational learning could be particularly important in the medical field considering that patients' safety prevails over students' training. The mechanism of observational learning is based on the mirror neuron system, originally discovered in the monkey pre-motor cortex. Today we know that humans have a similar system, and its role is to understand and reproduce the observed actions of others. Many studies conclude that humans are able to plan and to make movements based on visual information by mapping a representation of observed actions, especially when the motor system is committed to do it. Moreover most researchers considered observational learning effective for complex skills, such as medical procedures. Additionally, observational learning could play a relevant role during anesthesia training since the learner works in pairs most of the time (dyad practice). Some teaching approaches should be taken into consideration: an implicit engagement of the observer motor system is required, immediate feedback seems to have an important effect, and a combination of observational and physical practice could be better than physical practice alone. In an environment where effectiveness and efficacy are essential, observational learning seems to fit well.

Enhancing voluntary imitation through attention and motor imagery

Action observation activates brain areas involved in performing the same action and has been shown to increase motor learning, with potential implications for neurorehabilitation. Recent work indicates that the effects of action observation on movement can be increased by motor imagery or by directing attention to observed actions. In voluntary imitation, activation of the motor system during action observation is already increased. We therefore explored whether imitation could be further enhanced by imagery or attention. Healthy participants observed and then immediately imitated videos of human hand movement sequences, while movement kinematics were recorded. Two blocks of trials were completed, and after the first block participants were instructed to imagine performing the observed movement (Imagery group, N = 18) or attend closely to the characteristics of the movement (Attention group, N = 15), or received no further instructions (Control group, N = 17). Kinematics of the imitated movements were modulated by instructions, with both Imagery and Attention groups being closer in duration, peak velocity and amplitude to the observed model compared with controls. These findings show that both attention and motor imagery can increase the accuracy of imitation and have implications for motor learning and rehabilitation. Future work is required to understand the mechanisms by which these two strategies influence imitation accuracy.

Kinematic and kinetic improvements associated with action observation facilitated learning of the power clean in Australian footballers

This study investigated the effectiveness of action observation (AO) on facilitating learning of the power clean technique (kinematics) compared with traditional strength coaching methods and whether improvements in performance (kinetics) were associated with an improvement in lifting technique. Fifteen subjects (age, 20.9 ± 2.3 years) with no experience in performing the power clean exercise attended 12 training and testing sessions over a 4-week period. Subjects were assigned to 2 matched groups, based on preintervention power clean performance and performed 3 sets of 5 repetitions of the power clean exercise at each training session. Subjects in the traditional coaching group (TC; n = 7) received the standard coaching feedback (verbal cues and physical practice), whereas subjects in the AO group (n = 8) received similar verbal coaching cues and physical practice but also observed a video of a skilled model before performing each set. Kinematic data were collected from video recordings of subjects who were fitted with joint center markings during testing, whereas kinetic data were collected from a weightlifting analyzer attached to the barbell. Subjects were tested before intervention, at the end of weeks 2 and 3, and at after intervention at the end of week 4. Faster improvements (3%) were observed in power clean technique with AO-facilitated learning in the first week and performance improvements (mean peak power of the subject's 15 repetitions) over time were significant (p < 0.001). In addition, performance improvement was significantly associated (R = 0.215) with technique improvements. In conclusion, AO combined with verbal coaching and physical practice of the power clean exercise resulted in significantly faster technique improvements and improvement in performance compared with traditional coaching methods.

Effect of interactions between a child and a robot on the imitation and praxis performance of typically devloping children and a child with autism: a preliminary study

Interactions between a robot and a child (robot-child interactions) provide a unique context to engage children in whole body movements through a reciprocal imitation game. The effects of a novel, 8-session, robot-child interaction protocol on the imitation and praxis skills of 15 typically developing children and one child with autism between 4 and 7 years of age were examined. A quasi-experimental observational comparison of pretest and posttest performance was conducted. A task-specific robot imitation test and a standardized praxis measure were coded for changes in imitation and praxis errors at pretest and posttest. All children showed improvements in task-specific imitation and generalized praxis. Interpretation is limited by the lack of a control group. These findings serve as a foundation for further investigation of robot-child interactions as a potential training tool for children with dyspraxia.

How can ten fingers shape a pot? Evidence for equivalent function in culturally distinct motor skills

Behavioural variability is likely to emerge when a particular task is performed in different cultural settings, assuming that part of human motor behaviour is influenced by culture. In analysing motor behaviour it is useful to distinguish how the action is performed from the result achieved. Does cultural environment lead to specific cultural motor skills? Are there differences between cultures both in the skills themselves and in the corresponding outcomes? Here we analyse the skill of pottery wheel-throwing in French and Indian cultural environments. Our specific goal was to examine the ability of expert potters from distinct cultural settings to reproduce a common model shape (a sphere). The operational aspects of motor performance were captured through the analysis of the hand positions used by the potters during the fashioning process. In parallel, the outcomes were captured by the geometrical characteristics of the vessels produced. As expected, results revealed a cultural influence on the operational aspects of the potters’ motor skill. Yet, the marked cultural differences in hand positions used did not give rise to noticeable differences in the shapes of the vessels produced. Hence, for the simple model form studied, the culturally-specific motor traditions of the French and Indian potters gave rise to an equivalent outcome, that is shape uniformity. Further work is needed to test whether such equivalence is also observed in more complex ceramic shapes.

Effects of Focus of Attention and Type of Practice on Learning and Self-Efficacy in Dart Throwing

The present investigation studied the effect of focus of attention and type of practice on self-efficacy and learning during a demonstration of the dart-throwing skill. 48 university students ( M = 22.5 yr., SD = 3.6) without any experience of dart throwing were divided into four groups according to the type of practice (physical and observational) and focus of attention (internal and external) and practiced a dart-throwing task. Self-efficacy in dart throwing was measured at the pre-test, acquisition, and transfer phases. The internal-focus group concentrated on their limb function, whereas the external-focus group concentrated on the darts and the target during the demonstration. Observational groups only watched during the acquisition phase, then performed the task in the retention and transfer phases. There was a main effect of focus of attention in the retention and transfer phases after controlling self-efficacy, with external focus groups showing higher performance than internal focus groups. External focus of attention could facilitate the acquisition of a motor skill during observation and may build and/or be supported by self-efficacy.

Intra-individual movement variability during skill transitions: a useful marker?

Applied research suggests that athletes and coaches need to be challenged in knowing when and how much a movement should be consciously attended to. This is exacerbated when the skill is in transition between two more stable states, such as when an already well-learnt skill is being refined. Using existing theory and research, this paper highlights the potential application of movement variability as a tool to inform a coach's decision-making process when implementing a systematic approach to technical refinement. Of particular interest is the structure of co-variability between mechanical degrees-of-freedom (e.g., joints) within the movement system's entirety when undergoing a skill transition. Exemplar data from golf are presented, demonstrating the link between movement variability and mental effort as an important feature of automaticity, and thus intervention design throughout the different stages of refinement. Movement variability was shown to reduce when mental effort directed towards an individual aspect of the skill was high (target variable). The opposite pattern was apparent for variables unrelated to the technical refinement. Therefore, two related indicators, movement variability and mental effort, are offered as a basis through which the evaluation of automaticity during technical refinements may be made.

Biomechanics Simulation of Volleyball Player in Jumping Spike

Sports biomechanics is able to identify the variables that aim to define some or all aspects of a performance and then provide useful information for teachers or coaches to improve players' performance. The purpose of the study was to identify the crucial variables that contribute to a successful volleyball spike jump performance by using biomechanical analysis, in order to help teachers improve the jump performance of their students, these investigations allow teachers to observe student performance more systematically and also help them provide the right information at the right time and in an easily understood format.

Effect of Verbal Cueing on Trajectory Anticipation in the Penalty Kick among Novice Football Goalkeepers

The effect of a cueing technique on novice goalkeepers' anticipation of trajectory in penalty kicks was investigated. 28 novice football goalkeepers from junior teams were randomly selected and divided into experimental ( n = 14) and control ( n = 14) groups. Following a pre-test, participants performed 30 trials of a simulated penalty-kicking task in a spatially occluded condition. They were required to react to penalty kicks and were informed of their performance in anticipating the direction in which the ball was kicked. The experimental group received cues about the position of the non-kicking foot of the kicker, but the control group did not. The two-way analysis of variance showed the significant main effects of blocks of trials and group, but the interaction was not significant. The experimental group more accurately anticipated the direction of the penalty kicks than the control group. The cueing technique benefited the novice goalkeepers in anticipating the direction of penalty kicks, due to the informative nature of the cue for skill execution.

O papel da atenção na fisioterapia neurofuncional

Este estudo apresenta uma revisão teórica sobre o papel da atenção na realização de tarefas motoras, adotando-se a perspectiva do paradigma sistêmico aplicado ao comportamento motor e sua relação com a abordagem do controle motor na fisioterapia neurofuncional. Foram consultados os bancos de dados Medline, PubMed, LILACS, SciELO, e PEDro, incluindo artigos de 1990 a 2009. Nos estudos pesquisados, observou-se o entendimento da atenção como um agente mediador entre o indivíduo e o ambiente no processo de auto-organização dos subsistemas orgânicos durante a realização de uma tarefa motora. Foram identificadas similaridades entre esta perspectiva teórica sobre a atenção e os pressupostos que fundamentam a abordagem do controle motor na fisioterapia neurofuncional, evidenciando caminhos de investigação científica no sentido de ser mais bem compreendido o papel da atenção na adaptação do sistema neuromotor de pessoas com lesão neurológica e sua efetividade na promoção do movimento funcional humano.

Visual perception in fencing: do the eye movements of fencers represent their information pickup?

The present study examined whether results of athletes' eye movements while they observe fencing attacks reflect their actual information pickup by comparing these results with others gained with temporal and spatial occlusion and cuing techniques. Fifteen top-ranking expert fencers, 15 advanced fencers, and 32 sport students predicted the target region of 405 fencing attacks on a computer monitor. Results of eye movement recordings showed a stronger foveal fixation on the opponent's trunk and weapon in the two fencer groups. Top-ranking expert fencers fixated particularly on the upper trunk. This matched their performance decrements in the spatial occlusion condition. However, when the upper trunk was occluded, participants also shifted eye movements to neighboring body regions. Adding cues to the video material had no positive effects on prediction performance. We conclude that gaze behavior does not necessarily represent information pickup, but that studies applying the spatial occlusion paradigm should also register eye movements to avoid underestimating the information contributed by occluded regions.

Evaluation of race and gender sensitivity in the American Heart Association materials for Advanced Cardiac Life Support

BACKGROUND

Given the race and gender disparities in cardiac care for women and minorities, it is important to evaluate how we teach in this content area, because it may influence this bias.

OBJECTIVE

We assessed the American Heart Association's Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) materials, published in 2006, for examples of race and gender sensitivity that depicted culturally competent health education.

METHODS

Precourse materials, manuals, illustrations, case vignettes, compact discs (CDs), algorithms, and tests were evaluated for culturally competent opportunities. An opportunity was defined as each question or scenario that could have been edited to reflect race or gender. Minority status was interpreted as skin color other than white. Each individual component was counted separately. After the quantitative tally, an analysis was performed using simple percentile comparisons. Interpretations were based on these percentages.

RESULTS

The majority of teaching opportunities (54%) did not reflect race or gender. Of 149 patient opportunities to adequately represent those at risk, none clearly represented a minority female. In the simulated cases on the provider CD, all patients were white males. The mannequin had a male haircut and an open shirt. No mannequin had female characteristics (eg, earrings, breasts, or women's clothing). None of the provider CD cases illustrated patients or mannequins with skin color other than white.

CONCLUSIONS

The current ACLS provider and instructor materials do not maximize opportunities to illustrate vulnerable segments of the population. Future studies designed to evaluate the effect of improved representation of women and minorities in teaching models should be considered.

Effect of information load and time on observational learning

We examined whether altering the amount of and moment when visual information is presented affected observational learning for participants practicing a bowling skill. On Day 1, four groups practiced a cricket bowling action. Three groups viewed a full-body point-light model, the model's bowling arm, or between-limb coordination of the model's left and right wrists only. Following retention tests on Day 2, all participants practiced after viewing a full-body display. Retention was again tested on Day 3. Bowling accuracy improved in all four practice groups. Kinematics of the bowling arm became more like the model for the full-body and intralimb groups only. All groups improved on measures of interlimb coordination. Visual search data indicated that participants mainly focused their gaze on the model's bowling arm. These data lead to the suggestion that viewing "end-effector" information (i.e., information pertaining to the bowling arm) is an important perceptual constraint early in observational learning. Implicit manipulations designed to increase attention to other sources of information did not facilitate the learning process.

From visuo-motor interactions to imitation learning: Behavioural and brain imaging studies

We review three areas of research and theory relating to the involvement of motor processing in action observation: behavioural studies on imitation learning, behavioural work on short-term visuomotor interactions, and related neurophysiological and neuroimaging work. A large number of behavioural studies now indicate bi-directional links between perception and action: visual processing can automatically induce related motor processes, and motor actions can direct future visual processing. The related concept of direct matching (Rizzolatti et al., 2001) does not, however, imply that observed actions are transduced into a corresponding motor representation that would guarantee an instant and accurate imitation. Rather, studies on the mirror neuron system indicate that action observation engages the observer's own motor prototype of the observed action. This allows for enhanced action recognition, imitation recognition, and, predominantly in humans, imitation and observational learning. Despite the clear impact of action observation on motor representations, recent neuroimaging work also indicates the overlap of imitation learning with processes of non-imitative skill acquisition.

The effects of observational feedback and verbal cues on the motor learning of an aimed reach-and-point task

PURPOSE

Current technology allows the recording of movement for both motion analysis and providing observational feedback. The most effective type of observational feedback is under debate. We compared a child's reach-and-point performance after viewing a videotaped playback of a model's performance and after viewing a split-screen comparison of the model's and child's performances while simultaneously receiving verbal cues.

METHODS

A PTVision system provided observational feedback and recorded spatial trajectory, target accuracy, movement time, and joint angles while a 13 year-old boy with cerebral palsy reached for three targets.

RESULTS

The split-screen comparison had the largest effect on reach performance, including slower-yet-more-accurate movements and a more extended wrist, curved spatial trajectories, and an ulnar-deviated wrist.

CONCLUSIONS

Feedback using split-screen comparison between a model's and the child's performance with verbal cues appears to promote motor learning. When using technology to augment therapy, the intervention should be designed considering current motor learning principles.