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Zheng W, Lei M, Yao Y, Zhan J, Zhang Y, Zhou Q. Mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of Semen cuscutae in treating recurrent spontaneous abortion based on network pharmacology and molecular docking. Front Mol Biosci 2024; 11:1282100. [PMID: 38872917 PMCID: PMC11170108 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2024.1282100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: This paper aims to analyse the active components of Semen cuscutae (SC) by network pharmacology and screen the most stable compounds with tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) by molecular docking to explore the mechanisms of SC treatment of recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA) and provide a theoretical basis for drug development. Methods: The active compounds of SC and the potential inflammatory targets of RSA were obtained from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology database and GeneCards, respectively. The RSA-SC target gene interaction network was obtained and visualized using the STRING database and Cytoscape software. GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analyses were obtained from DAVID to further explore the RSA mechanism and therapeutic effects of SC. Interactions between TNF-α and drugs were analysed by molecular docking. Treatment of human trophoblast cells with sesamin and TNF-α was carried out to detect their proliferative and apoptotic abilities, and WB assay was carried out to detect EGFR, PTGS2, and CASP3 protein expression. Results: Ten compounds and 128 target genes were screened from SC, of which 79 overlapped with RSA target inflammatory genes, which were considered potential therapeutic targets. Network pharmacological analysis showed that sesamin, matrine, matrol, and other SC compounds had a good correlation with the inflammatory target genes of RSA. Related genes included PGR, PTGS1, PTGS2, TGFB1, and CHRNA7. Several signalling pathways are involved in the pathogenesis of RSA, such as the TNF-α signalling pathway, HIF-1 signalling pathway, oestrogen signalling pathway, proteoglycans in cancer cells, and FoxO signalling pathway. Molecular docking results suggested that sesamin was the most suitable natural tumour necrosis factor inhibitor (TNFi). Sesamin can promote proliferation and inhibit apoptosis in human trophoblasts by downregulating EGFR and CASP3 expression and upregulating PTGS2 expression. Conclusion: Our findings play an important role and basis for further research into the molecular mechanism of SC treatment of RSA and drug development of TNFi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenfei Zheng
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, The First College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University/Yichang Central People’s Hospital, Yichan, China
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Fernández-Alcántara M, Esteban-Burgos AA, Escribano S, Congost-Maestre N, Pollock D, Cabañero-Martínez MJ. Spanish adaptation of the Stillbirth Stigma Scale (SSS). DEATH STUDIES 2024:1-8. [PMID: 38329460 DOI: 10.1080/07481187.2024.2312378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
The death of a baby in the perinatal period is considered a disenfranchized grief that can be a source of significant symptoms of guilt, shame, and stigma. There is a lack of validated instruments for assessing the stigma associated with perinatal grief. The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties (factor structure, reliability, and validity) of the Spanish version of the Stillbirth Stigma Scale (SSS) in parents who have experienced a perinatal loss. A total of 291 participants (mostly mothers) completed an online questionnaire that included the SSS and other measures. The best-fitting factor structure was a second-order model with four dimensions and adequate reliability values. In terms of validity, we found statistically significant relationships between the SSS scores and the variables of self-esteem, complicated grief, event centrality, depression, and anxiety. In conclusion, the Spanish adaptation of the SSS is deemed to have adequate psychometric properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Fernández-Alcántara
- Department of Health Psychology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute for Health and Biomedical Research (ISABIAL), University of Alicante, Spain
| | - Ana Alejandra Esteban-Burgos
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación biosanitaria de Granada (Ibs.GRANADA), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Silvia Escribano
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute for Health and Biomedical Research (ISABIAL), University of Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, Spain
| | | | - Danielle Pollock
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - María José Cabañero-Martínez
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute for Health and Biomedical Research (ISABIAL), University of Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, Spain
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Heazell AEP, Barron R, Fockler ME. Care in pregnancy after stillbirth. Semin Perinatol 2024; 48:151872. [PMID: 38135622 DOI: 10.1016/j.semperi.2023.151872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Pregnancy after stillbirth is associated with increased risk of stillbirth and other adverse pregnancy outcomes including fetal growth restriction, preeclampsia, and preterm birth in subsequent pregnancies. In addition, pregnancy after stillbirth is associated with emotional and psychological challenges for women and their families. This manuscript summarizes information available to guide clinicians for how to manage a pregnancy after stillbirth by appreciating the nature of the increased risk in future pregnancies, and that these are not affected by interpregnancy interval. Qualitative studies have identified clinician behaviors that women find helpful during subsequent pregnancies after loss which can be implemented into practice. The role of peer support and need for professional input from the antenatal period through to after the birth of a live baby is discussed. Finally, areas for research are highlighted to develop care further for this group of women at increased risk of medical and psychological complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander E P Heazell
- Maternal and Fetal Health Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, Medical and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK; Saint Mary's Hospital, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, UK.
| | - Rebecca Barron
- Saint Mary's Hospital, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, UK
| | - Megan E Fockler
- DAN Women and Babies Program, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Atashsokhan G, Farjamfar M, Khosravi A, Taher M, Keramat A. Desired Care for Perinatal Bereavement: Meeting the Needs of Mothers After Discharge From the Hospital-a Qualitative Study. INQUIRY : A JOURNAL OF MEDICAL CARE ORGANIZATION, PROVISION AND FINANCING 2024; 61:469580231223763. [PMID: 38339829 PMCID: PMC10859064 DOI: 10.1177/00469580231223763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the understanding and experiences of mothers who have suffered perinatal loss regarding their needs after being discharged from the hospital. Data were collected through semi-structured face-to-face and telephone interviews using purposive sampling with maximum diversity. The sample included 15 mothers and 6 midwives who had experienced fetal loss and perinatal bereavement. The interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Conventional content analysis was used to analyze the data. Sampling was conducted from July 2022 to March 2023, continuing until data saturation was reached. The study identified 2 main categories of needs for mothers who have experienced perinatal loss: continuous healthcare (including the Comprehensive Mother Tracking System, provision of psychological welfare, and educational needs) and provision of a support network, including "spouse and family support" and "peer and colleague support." The primary theme of this study was "Deliberating Care for Grieving Mothers." The study results indicate that mothers who experience perinatal loss require continuity of care after being discharged. Psychological screening and counseling support are essential for both parents. Considering the significant impact of spousal, familial, and community support on an individual's life, it is crucial to prepare the community to comprehend and embrace grieving parents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giti Atashsokhan
- Student Research Committee, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Maryam Farjamfar
- Center for Health Related Social and Behavioral Sciences Research, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Ahmad Khosravi
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Mahboobe Taher
- Department of Psychology, Shahrood Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrood, Iran
| | - Afsaneh Keramat
- Department of Reproductive Health, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
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Wang Y, Gu J, Zhang F, Xu X. The effect of perceived social support on postpartum stress: the mediating roles of marital satisfaction and maternal postnatal attachment. BMC Womens Health 2023; 23:482. [PMID: 37697292 PMCID: PMC10496285 DOI: 10.1186/s12905-023-02593-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple factors may be responsible for the development of postpartum stress, including perceived social support, marital satisfaction, and maternal postnatal attachment. However, the underlying mediation mechanisms remain unclear. This study examined the complex relationships between perceived social support and postpartum stress among Chinese women. METHODS A convenience sample comprising 406 postpartum women was recruited from six hospitals in Nantong, Jiangsu Province, China. The participants completed general survey questionnaires and were evaluated using the Maternal Postpartum Stress Scale, the Perceived Social Support Scale, the Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale, and the Marital Satisfaction Scale. Furthermore, we evaluated the relationship between postpartum stress and the various influencing factors by performing a multiple linear regression analysis. The potential mediating roles of marital satisfaction and maternal and infant attachment in the association between perceived social support and postpartum stress were explored by performing a mediation analysis. RESULTS According to the multivariate regression analysis, perceived social support, marital satisfaction, and maternal postnatal attachment contributed to postpartum stress levels (P < 0.05). The mediation analysis revealed that marital satisfaction and maternal postnatal attachment played parallel mediating roles in the association between perceived social support and postpartum stress, and the mediating effect of marital satisfaction was - 0.1125 (95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.1784 to -0.0520), accounting for 33.20% of the total effect, and the mediating effect of maternal postnatal attachment was - 0.0847 (95% CI: -0.1304 to -0.0438), accounting for 25.00% of the total effect. CONCLUSION Our study revealed that perceived social support could influence postpartum stress not only through direct effect (41.80% of the total effect), but also through the indirect effect (mediation effect) of marital satisfaction and maternal postnatal attachment (58.20% of the total effect), suggesting that improving postpartum women's social support, enhancing maternal and infant attachment, and improving their marital satisfaction could help lower postpartum stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanchi Wang
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
- Department of Nursing, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
- Affiliated Nantong Hospital of Shanghai University (The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong), Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jian Gu
- Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, School of Public Health, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Xujuan Xu
- Department of Nursing, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China.
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Nunes Maia G, Ruschel Bandeira D, Centenaro Levandowski D. Associations of Losing a Child With the Couple Relationship, Maternal Mental Health, and the Emotional Development of the Subsequent Baby. OMEGA-JOURNAL OF DEATH AND DYING 2022:302228221143821. [PMID: 36476190 DOI: 10.1177/00302228221143821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
The loss of a child can impact maternal mental health and the emotional development of a subsequent baby. Couple relationship can help women to cope with this loss. This study investigates the association among child loss, maternal mental health (including prolonged grief), couple adjustment, and psycho-functional symptoms in the subsequent babies. 598 Brazilian mothers, recruited by convenience, took part in the study. Mothers with a baby loss (23%) presented greater age and religiosity, less income, a longer couple relationship, and better couple adjustment, and their baby presented a great number of symptoms. This population needs monitoring for early emotional assistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Nunes Maia
- Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Chichester M, Tepner L, Côté-Arsenault D. Nursing Care of Childbearing Families After Previous Perinatal Loss. Nurs Womens Health 2022; 26:379-388. [PMID: 36065093 DOI: 10.1016/j.nwh.2022.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Nurses who care for childbearing families facilitate the family's adaptation to the arrival of a newborn through assessment of physical, emotional, and psychological needs. After experiencing a perinatal loss, such as miscarriage, stillbirth, or neonatal death, a woman's perception of pregnancy and of her sense of control in becoming a mother can include fear and anxiety, and she may have significantly different needs than a pregnant woman who has not experienced perinatal loss. In this article, we provide evidence-based information and recommendations for maternal-child nurses caring for childbearing families who are preparing to welcome a new baby (sometimes called a "rainbow baby") after a previous perinatal loss.
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Bian C, Qin Z, Zhang J, Sun M, Gu M, Chen K. Analysis of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes of Pregnant Women with Syphilis and Maternal-Infant Serological Association in Changzhou, China, 2015-2019. Stem Cells Int 2022; 2022:9673850. [PMID: 36106175 PMCID: PMC9467748 DOI: 10.1155/2022/9673850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of syphilis program in China has achieved national coverage for 7 years, controversy still exists regarding the treatment of syphilis and the serological significance of syphilis. Objective To explore the occurrence and influencing factors of adverse pregnancy outcomes among pregnant women with syphilis in Changzhou from 2015-2019 and to further analyze the impact of syphilis serologic titers on perinatal outcomes and neonatal serologic outcomes. Methods Syphilis-infected pregnant women reported in Changzhou City from 2015 to 2019 were selected as the study population (data were obtained from the "China Information System for Prevention of Mother-to-child Transmission of AIDS, Syphilis and Hepatitis B." Demographic characteristics, laboratory tests, and medication were collected to describe adverse pregnancy outcomes and the distribution of non-pale leptospiral antibody titers during pregnancy. Multivariate logistic regression was used to analyze the factors influencing adverse pregnancy outcomes. We also compared differences in syphilis titers among mothers who received different interventions, differences in serologic outcomes of their children, and correlations between them. Results For mothers with syphilis infection, we found no treatment during pregnancy (OR =1.70) and an initial titer greater than 1 : 8 (OR =2.28) to be risk factors. For treated pregnant women, increasing age (OR =1.08), lack of standardized treatment (OR =1.87), and initial titer greater than 1 : 8 (OR =1.69) were risk factors, while previous parity was a protective factor (OR =0.62). For untreated pregnant women, marital status (OR =2.40) and initial titers greater than 1 : 8 (OR =3.57) were risk factors. There were statistically significant differences (P < 0.01) in serologic titer changes, time to antibody regression, and time to exclusion of syphilis infection in children of pregnant women with syphilis infection after receiving different interventions during pregnancy, but different time distributions of interventions had no effect on these three indicators. Conclusion Pregnant women with syphilis should actively cooperate with their doctors in the standardized treatment of pregnancy, and doctors should also pay more attention to pregnant women with syphilis whose initial titers are greater than 1 : 8. High-quality prenatal care is a key component in interrupting mother-to-child transmission of syphilis and preventing various adverse pregnancy outcomes. The adaptation of standardized treatment protocols for pregnant women with syphilis in China is a strong proof of the progress of precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaorong Bian
- Changzhou Children's Hospital Affiliated to Nantong University, Changzhou, 226019 Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhiqiang Qin
- Changzhou Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Changzhou Medical Center, Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, 213000 Jiangsu, China
| | - Jieying Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123 Jiangsu, China
| | - Mengtao Sun
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123 Jiangsu, China
| | - Manman Gu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123 Jiangsu, China
| | - Kejin Chen
- Changzhou Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Changzhou Medical Center, Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, 213000 Jiangsu, China
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Haghighi M, Oladbaniadam K, Mohaddesi H, Rasuli J. Individual counseling in mothers bereaved by pregnancy loss: A randomized clinical trial. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND HEALTH PROMOTION 2022; 11:209. [PMID: 36003258 PMCID: PMC9393948 DOI: 10.4103/jehp.jehp_1765_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The loss of a pregnancy can result in grief, guilt, self-doubt, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Considering the side effects mentioned for mental health and the fact that the symptoms will linger if left untreated and even adversely affect the subsequent pregnancies. The current study was designed to assess the impact of individual counseling on stress, anxiety, and depression in mothers with pregnancy loss. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study commenced 100 women who experienced pregnancy loss (in Urmia/2018-2019); they were enrolled using convenience sampling and block randomization. The intervention group received four individual counseling sessions (weekly sessions with a duration of 1 h) based on Warden's principles. The control group received routine care. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-42) was filled out at baseline, the pre- and post-intervention. Analyses were performed using the Chi-square, paired, or individual t-tests, when necessary. P value < 0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS There were no significant differences regarding socio-demographic characteristics and clinical features between groups at baseline. Intra-group analysis showed that all outcome measures in the intervention group were significantly improved. According to inter-groups analysis, a significant association was found between pre-test and post-test in the intervention group (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Results of this study can clarify the psychological effects of pregnancy loss in these mothers and help the officials and responsible parties to plan the treatment and rehabilitation of these women and include them in the healthcare system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Khatereh Oladbaniadam
- M.Sc. Student of Counselling in Midwifery, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Hamideh Mohaddesi
- Department of Midwifery, Maternal and Childhood Obesity Research Center, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Javad Rasuli
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
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Liu X, Ge J, Zhang J, Du B. Effect of Perineum Block Anesthesia Combined with Unprotected Perineal Delivery on the Perineal Integrity Rate and Maternal-Infant Outcomes in Primiparas Taking Health Products Containing Traditional Chinese Medicine. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE : ECAM 2021; 2021:2102618. [PMID: 34306135 PMCID: PMC8266454 DOI: 10.1155/2021/2102618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of perineum block anaesthesia combined with unprotected perineal delivery on the perineal integrity rate and maternal-infant outcomes in primiparas taking health products containing traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). METHODS A total of 120 puerperae admitted to our hospital from July 2019 to July 2020 were selected as study subjects and divided into group A (n = 60) and group B (n = 60), according to the number table method. Both groups took health products containing TCM, and the puerperae in group A received perineum block anaesthesia combined with unprotected perineal delivery, while those in group B were treated with routine delivery combined with routine protected perineal delivery. After that, the effect of different delivery modes on the perineal integrity rate and maternal-infant outcomes in puerperae was analyzed by the comparison of delivery condition, perineal condition, and postpartum quality of life between the two groups. RESULTS There were no significant differences in average age and other general data between the two groups (P > 0.05); the duration in first, second, and third stages of labor in group A was significantly lower than that in group B (P < 0.001); the Apgar score in group A was significantly higher than that in group B (P < 0.001); the number of puerperae with integrated perineum in group A was significantly higher than that in group B (P < 0.05), while the number of puerperae receiving episiotomy in group A was significantly lower than that in group B (P < 0.05); the quality of life score in group A was significantly higher than that in group B (P < 0.001); the incidence of maternal postpartum complications in group A was significantly lower than that in group B (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Perineum block anaesthesia combined with unprotected perineal delivery can effectively shorten maternal labor duration, improve perineal integrity rate, and reduce laceration of perineum, with a significant therapeutic effect, which is worthy of application and promotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University (Nantong First People's Hospital), Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jianyun Ge
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University (Nantong First People's Hospital), Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jiejie Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University (Nantong First People's Hospital), Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Boxiang Du
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University (Nantong First People's Hospital), Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
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Abstract
Recurrent pregnancy loss is a distressing pregnancy disorder experienced by ~2.5% of women trying to conceive. Recurrent pregnancy loss is defined as the failure of two or more clinically recognized pregnancies before 20-24 weeks of gestation and includes embryonic and fetal losses. The diagnosis of an early pregnancy loss is relatively straightforward, although progress in predicting and preventing recurrent pregnancy loss has been hampered by a lack of standardized definitions, the uncertainties surrounding the pathogenesis and the highly variable clinical presentation. The prognosis for couples with recurrent pregnancy loss is generally good, although the likelihood of a successful pregnancy depends on maternal age and the number of previous losses. Recurrent pregnancy loss can be caused by chromosomal errors, anatomical uterine defects, autoimmune disorders and endometrial dysfunction. Available treatments target the putative risk factors of pregnancy loss, although the effectiveness of many medical interventions is controversial. Regardless of the underlying aetiology, couples require accurate information on their chances of having a baby and appropriate support should be offered to reduce the psychological burden associated with multiple miscarriages. Future research must investigate the pathogenesis of recurrent pregnancy loss and evaluate novel diagnostic tests and treatments in adequately powered clinical trials.
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