Introduction to the special issue: Emotional states, attention, and working memory

Individual and context-evoked antecedents of exploration-exploitation performance

A central issue within the Carnegie approach is the exploration-exploitation tension that lies behind organizational adaptation. After decades of research, there is still little understanding of how the combination of individual and context-evoked differences affects exploration-exploitation performance. To address that issue, we build on recent psychological and neuroscientific studies to develop and test an integrative model. The model considers two individual antecedents (personality and cognitive flexibility) and three context-evoked antecedents that take place along different time horizons (recent stress, present emotional states, and present task motivation). We rely on a lab-in-the-field study of 282 leaders within the Swiss Armed Forces-an organization that exhibits the exploration-exploitation tension in an accentuated form. Using structural equation modeling, we conduct a multiple-mediation path analysis aimed at testing complex interactions between multiple variables. Our findings highlight the need to take an integrative approach; cognitive flexibility mediates the positive effect of the personality trait of emotional stability on exploration-exploitation performance, however, both cognitive flexibility and emotional stability play unique, underlying roles in explaining how organizational leaders interpret the context. Emotional stability decreases the negative effect of recent stress on a leader's cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility, in turn, mediates the effect of the present positive affective signals of task motivation on exploration-exploitation performance. These findings shed new light on our understanding of how adaptive leaders leverage positive and negative context-evoked antecedents that, in turn, affect cognitive flexibility and exploration-exploitation.

Relation between fluid intelligence and mathematics and reading comprehension achievements: The moderating role of student teacher relationships and school bonding

Several studies have shown the relevance among students of the quality of their interpersonal relationships for their academic achievement. Nevertheless, most studies available have explored the relation between the cognitive functioning and academic achievement without taking into account the quality of the relationships experienced in the school environment. Furthermore, the studies that have begun to consider the joint role of these factors in the prediction of academic achievement are scant. Therefore, it appears of relevance to deepen the relation between cognitive functioning and quality of school relationships in order to support students' academic achievement and the potential of youth. In this paper, we examined the moderating role of the quality of student-teacher relationships and school bonding (STR-SB) in the associations of fluid intelligence (Gf) with academic achievement among adolescents (N = 219). A multiple-group structural equation modelling analysis revealed that STR-SB quality moderated unexpectedly only the link between Gf and mathematics. The findings support the idea that the quality of student-teacher relationships may be a relevant dimension to be considered to clarify the association between cognitive functioning and academic achievement.

Room for Feelings: A “Working Memory” Account of Affective Processing

In the past decades, affective science has overwhelmingly demonstrated the unique properties of affective information to bias our attention, memory, and decisions. At the same time, accumulating evidence suggests that neutral and affective representations rely on the same working memory substrates for the selection and computation of information and that they are therefore restricted by the same capacity limitations that these substrates impose. Here, we integrate these insights into a working memory model of affective processing (WMAP). Drawing on competitive access models of working memory, we discuss its role in the various stages of affective processing, from attentional selection to maintenance and memory storage, and resulting feelings and actions. We end our overview with some open questions and future directions.

Self-Reported Depression Is Associated With Aberration in Emotional Reactivity and Emotional Concept Coding

Cognitive impairment, alterations in mood, emotion dysregulation are just a few of the consequences of depression. Despite depression being reported as the most common mental disorder worldwide, examining depression or risks of depression is still challenging. Emotional reactivity has been observed to predict the risk of depression, but the results have been mixed for negative emotional reactivity (NER). To better understand the emotional response conflict, we asked our participants to describe their feeling in meaningful sentences alongside reporting their reactions to the emotionally evocative words. We presented a word on the screen and asked participants to perform two tasks, rate their feeling after reading the word using the self-assessment manikin (SAM) scale, and describe their feeling using the property generation task. The emotional content was analyzed using a novel machine-learning algorithm approach. We performed these two tasks in blocks and randomized their order across participants. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) was used to categorize participants into self-reported non-depressed (ND) and depressed (D) groups. Compared to the ND, the D group reported reduced positive emotional reactivity when presented with extremely pleasant words regardless of their arousal levels. However, no significant difference was observed between the D and ND groups for negative emotional reactivity. In contrast, we observed increased sadness and inclination toward low negative context from descriptive content by the D compared to the ND group. The positive content analyses showed mixed results. The contrasting results between the emotional reactivity and emotional content analyses demand further examination between cohorts of self-reported depressive symptoms, no-symptoms, and MDD patients to better examine the risks of depression and help design early interventions.

The Role of Cue Utilization and Cognitive Load in the Recognition of Phishing Emails

Phishing emails represent a major threat to online information security. While the prevailing research is focused on users' susceptibility, few studies have considered the decision-making strategies that account for skilled detection. One relevant facet of decision-making is cue utilization, where users retrieve feature-event associations stored in long-term memory. High degrees of cue utilization help reduce the demands placed on working memory (i.e., cognitive load), and invariably improve decision performance (i.e., the information-reduction hypothesis in expert performance). The current study explored the effect of cue utilization and cognitive load when detecting phishing emails. A total of 50 undergraduate students completed: (1) a rail control task; (2) a phishing detection task; and (3) a survey of the cues used in detection. A cue utilization assessment battery (EXPERTise 2.0) then classified participants with either higher or lower cue utilization. As expected, higher cue utilization was associated with a greater likelihood of detecting phishing emails. However, variation in cognitive load had no effect on phishing detection, nor was there an interaction between cue utilization and cognitive load. Further, the findings revealed no significant difference in the types of cues used across cue utilization groups or performance levels. These findings have implications for our understanding of cognitive mechanisms that underpin the detection of phishing emails and the role of factors beyond the information-reduction hypothesis.

Updating facial emotional expressions in working memory: Differentiating trait anxiety and depressiveness

Individual differences in updating emotional facial expressions in working memory are not fully understood. Here we focused on the effects of high trait anxiety and high depressiveness in men and women on updating schematic emotional facial expressions (sad, angry, scheming, happy, neutral). A population representative sample of young adults was divided into four emotional disposition groups based on STAI-T and MADRS cut-offs: high anxiety (HA, n = 41), high depressiveness (HD, n = 31), high depressiveness & high anxiety (HAHD, n = 65) and control (CT, n = 155). Participants completed a 2-back task with schematic emotional faces, and valence/arousal ratings and verbal recognition tasks. A novel approach was used to separate encoding from retrieval. We found an interaction of emotional dispositions and emotional faces in updating accuracy. HD group made more errors than HA when encoding happy schematic faces. Other differences between emotional dispositions on updating measures were found but they were not specific to any emotional facial expression. Our findings suggest that there is a minor happy disadvantage in HD in contrast to HA which can be seen in lower accuracy for visual encoding of happy faces, but not in retrieval accuracy, the speed of updating, nor perception of emotional content in happy faces. These findings help to explain differences and similarities between high trait anxiety and high depressiveness in working memory and processing of facial expressions. The results are discussed in relation to prevalent theories of information processing in anxiety and depression.

Attentional Control in Bilingualism: An Exploration of the Effects of Trait Anxiety and Rumination on Inhibition

Bilingual individuals have been reported to show enhanced executive function in comparison to monolingual peers. However, the role of adverse emotional traits such as trait anxiety and rumination in bilingual cognitive control has not been established. Attentional Control Theory holds that anxiety disproportionately impacts processing efficiency (typically measured via reaction time) in comparison to accuracy (performance effectiveness). We administered eye tracking and behavioural measures of inhibition to young, healthy monolingual and highly proficient bilingual adults. We found that trait anxiety was a reliable risk factor for decreased inhibitory control accuracy in bilingual but not monolingual participants. These findings, therefore, indicate that adverse emotional traits may differentially modulate performance in monolingual and bilingual individuals, an interpretation which has implications both for ACT and future research on bilingual cognition.

Association of serotoninergic pathway gene variants with elite athletic status in the Polish population

Genetic factors are known to influence sport performance. The aim of the present study was to assess genetic variants in genes coding for proteins potentially modulating activity of brain emotion centres in a group of 621 elite athletes (212 endurance, 183 power and 226 combat athletes) and 672 sedentary controls. Ten statistically significant variants were identified in genes encoding elements of serotoninergic, catecholaminergic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal systems in different sport groups. Of those the rs860573 variant in the FEV gene coding for transcription factor exclusively expressed in neurons of the central serotonin system is the only one whose frequency significantly differentiates all the groups of athletes studied, regardless of discipline, from the controls (p = 0.000026). Our results support the hypothesis that genetic variants potentially affecting mental processes and emotions, particularly in the serotonergic pathway, also influence the predispositions to athletic performance.

Neuroticism related differences in working memory tasks

Two influential theories relating to personality traits, i.e. arousal-based theory (ABT) and attentional control theory (ACT), made predictions on how neuroticism may affect task performance. ABT suggested that high neurotics perform worse than low neurotics in all difficult tasks, whereas they perform similar in easy tasks. On the other hand, ACT suggested that high neurotics perform worse than low neurotics only if the task relies on central executive functions of working memory (WM), such as switching or inhibition. However, currently it is still unclear whether neuroticism affects all difficult tasks, as proposed by ABT, or whether it is specific to certain tasks, as proposed by ACT. To test this, we used the Cambridge Neuropsychological Tasks Automated Battery (CANTAB) as our test tool and we selected three working memory tasks which tested the effect of neuroticism on both the central executive system (CES) and the WM storage system (i.e. visuospatial sketchpad) in 21 low and 24 high neurotics. Results showed that high neurotics, as compared to low neurotics, exhibited lower performance only when the working memory task is specifically associated with switching and/or inhibition, but not in a task which is associated with the visuospatial sketchpad. We conclude that the results support the ACT rather than the ABT, because high levels of neuroticism impaired behavioural performance specifically in demanding tasks associated with switching and inhibition, but not in tasks associated with the visuospatial sketchpad.

Motivational-general arousal imagery does not improve decision-making performance in elite endurance cyclists

Emotions are predicted to influence judgement and decision-making across a range of performance contexts. This experiment tested whether motivational-general arousal imagery can improve the decision-making performance of elite endurance cyclists. In total, 54 cyclists (38 men, 16 women) were assigned to either a positive imagery condition (where positive images associated with the affective experience of winning were encouraged) or a negative imagery condition (where negative images associated with poor performance were encouraged). The cyclists were read one of two scripts designed to elicit positive or negative images during a 20-min maximal sustainable interval on a cycle ergometer. A decision-making task (colour-word match Stroop) was performed before and immediately after the maximal sustainable power interval. Results showed that the manipulation was successful with cyclists in the positive imagery condition reporting more positive affective states (higher levels of happiness and lower levels of dejection) than those in the negative imagery condition. However, there was no significant difference between the two groups in their decision-making performance under physiological duress. These findings indicate that while motivational-general arousal imagery might be a useful method to induce positive emotions during exercise, it is unlikely to improve the decision-making performance of cyclists in performance-relevant conditions.

Leveling the playing field: can psychological coping resources reduce the influence of physical and technical skills on athletic performance?

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The present study assessed the extent to which individual differences in psychological coping resources are related to athletic performance; whether they can attenuate the amount of performance variance accounted for by physical/technical skills; and whether coping resources remain significant predictors of performance when physical/technical skill level is statistically controlled.

METHODS

Twenty college golf coaches rated the physical/technical skills of 189 men and women varsity golfers on their teams. Athletes completed the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI-28), with the total (Personal Coping Resources) score serving as a global measure of sport-relevant psychological coping resources. Subsequent performance (stroke average per round) of 105 golfers was assessed over a mean of 12.04 competitive rounds during the remainder of the season.

RESULTS

Physical/technical skills and psychological coping resource measures were minimally correlated and both were significant and similarly influential predictors of performance. With psychological resources controlled, performance variance accounted for by physical/technical skills was reduced from 21.2% to 10.6%. With physical/technical skills statistically controlled, psychological coping resources, though reduced from 18.2% to 7.5% of accountable variance, remained a significant predictor of performance.

CONCLUSION

Results support the significant role played by psychological coping resources as predictors of athletic performance, together with their ability to "level the field" by reducing the influence of physical/technical talent.

Effect of Emotion States on the Updating Function of Working Memory

In recent years, the interaction between emotion and working memory has been investigated with mixed results. Yet, few neurophysiological studies systematically investigated the effect of emotion states on the updating function of working memory that is a core part of executive functioning. Executive functioning has also been identified as cognitive function, which plays an important role in everyday life and even be a predictor of higher-level cognitive function. Here, we studied the effect of emotions on the updating function of working memory. 16 subjects were recruited to participate in verbal working memory task, and 14 in spatial working memory task. Pictures from International Affective Picture System(IAPS) were employed to evoke positive, negative and neutral states, and 4 digits or 4 spatial positions instructions created verbal or spatial working memory tasks. Combining event-related potentials(ERPs) and repeated measures ANOVA methods, the results showed that the updating time significantly increased in the positive state, and P3 amplitude was significantly lower than that of the neutral state in verbal working memory task; while in spatial working memory task, the updating time significantly increased in the negative state, but there was no significant difference in ERP components. These findings suggest that the updating function of verbal working memory may be affected by the positive state, while that of the spatial working memory may be affected by the negative state.

Motivational intensity modulates the effects of positive emotions on set shifting after controlling physiological arousal

Recent research on the construct of emotion suggests the integration of a motivational dimension into the traditional two-dimension (subjective valence and physiological arousal) model. The motivational intensity of an emotional state should be taken into account while investigating the emotion-cognition relationship. This study examined how positive emotional states varying in motivational intensity influenced set shifting, after controlling the potential confounding impacts of physiological arousal. In Experiment 1, 155 volunteers performed a set-shifting task after being randomly assigned to five states: high- vs. low-motivating positive affect (interest vs. serenity), high- vs. low-motivating negative affect (disgust vs. anxiety), and neutral state. Eighty-five volunteers participated in Experiment 2, which further examined the effects of higher vs. lower degree of interest. Both experiments measured and compared participants' physiological arousal (blood pressure and pulse rate) under the normal and experimental conditions as the covariate. Results showed no difference in switching performance between the neutral and serenity groups. As compared with the neutral state, the high-motivating positive affect significantly increased set-switching reaction time costs, but reduced error rate costs; the higher the motivational intensity, the greater the time-costs impairment. This indicates a role of the high-motivating positive affect in regulating the balance between the flexible and stable cognitive control. Motivational intensity also modulated the effects of negative emotional states, i.e., disgust caused a larger increase in time costs than anxiety. Further exploration into neurobiological mechanisms that may mediate the emotional effects on set shifting is warranted.

Interaction Effects of the COMT and DRD4 Genes with Anxiety-Related Traits on Selective Attention

The study investigated whether the DRD4 and COMT genes can modify relations between trait anxiety and selective attention. Two hundreds and sixty-six subjects performed a visual search task in which they had to find words looking through a sheet with rows of letters. After finishing the first sheet the subject was presented the second one, this time with an instruction to perform the task as quickly and accurate as possible. To study top-down attention, the number of correctly identified words (accuracy) and the time for completion of each trial were analyzed. To study bottom-up attention, the letters ‘o’ and ‘n’ were written in green, whilst the others were in black, and subjects were asked whether they had noticed that 2–3 minutes after the task completion. Genotypes for the COMT Val158Met and DRD4 VNTR-48 polymorphisms and TCI Harm Avoidance and MMPI Depression scales’ scores were obtained as well. High anxious individuals showed a more pronounced increase in accuracy in the second trial and more profound processing of irrelevant stimuli (colored letters). There was a significant interaction effect of DRD4 and Harm avoidance on the accuracy dynamics F(1, 210), = 7.65, p = .006, η2 = .04. Among DRD4 long allele carriers, high anxious subjects significantly improved accuracy (p = .013) and tended to slow speed, while those with lower Harm avoidance demonstrated the opposite trend. These effects were more robust in less educated individuals. It was concluded that the DRD4 polymorphism may modify the influence of trait anxiety on the speed-accuracy tradeoff.

Emotions correlate with perceived mental effort and concentration disruption in adult sport performers

Two studies explored the relationship between emotions, perceived mental effort and concentration disruption in adult sport performers. In Study 1, semi-professional association football players completed questionnaire measures before and after a competitive match. In Study 2, student athletes completed questionnaire measures for two performance scenarios: one in which they were performing above their normal level and one in which they were performing below their normal level. Findings demonstrated that cognitive trait anxiety was associated with greater disruptions in concentration but was unrelated to mental effort. For state measures, athletes reported greater levels of concentration disruption when experiencing high levels of anxiety or high levels of happiness, and fewer disruptions in concentration when experiencing high levels of excitement. Findings also showed that excitement was associated with low levels of mental effort during good performances and high levels of mental effort during poor performances; anxiety and happiness were associated with high levels of mental effort during good performances and low levels of mental effort during poor performances. Taken together, these studies point towards potential benefits accompanying high levels of excitement and potential disadvantages accompanying high levels of anxiety and happiness.