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O'Neale CV, Tran MH, Schey KL. Aquaporin-0-protein interactions elucidated by crosslinking mass spectrometry. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2024; 727:150320. [PMID: 38963984 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
Aquaporin-0 (AQP0) constitutes 50 % of the lens membrane proteome and plays important roles in lens fiber cell adhesion, water permeability, and lens transparency. Previous work has shown that specific proteins, such as calmodulin (CaM), interact with AQP0 to modulate its water permeability; however, these studies often used AQP0 peptides, rather than full-length protein, to probe these interactions. Furthermore, the specific regions of interaction of several known AQP0 interacting partners, i.e. αA and αB-crystallins, and phakinin (CP49) remain unknown. The purpose of this study was to use crosslinking mass spectrometry (XL-MS) to identify interacting proteins with full-length AQP0 in crude lens cortical membrane fractions and to determine the specific protein regions of interaction. Our results demonstrate, for the first time, that the AQP0 N-terminus can engage in protein interactions. Specific regions of interaction are elucidated for several AQP0 interacting partners including phakinin, α-crystallin, connexin-46, and connexin-50. In addition, two new interacting partners, vimentin and connexin-46, were identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Vt O'Neale
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University, 465 21(ST), Ave, So. MRB III, Suite 9160, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
| | - Minh H Tran
- Chemical and Physical Biology Program, 465 21(ST), Ave, So. MRB III, Suite 9160, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
| | - Kevin L Schey
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University, 465 21(ST), Ave, So. MRB III, Suite 9160, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA.
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2
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Li M, He M, Xu F, Guan Y, Tian J, Wan Z, Zhou H, Gao M, Chong T. Abnormal expression and the significant prognostic value of aquaporins in clear cell renal cell carcinoma. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264553. [PMID: 35245343 PMCID: PMC8896691 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Aquaporins (AQPs) are a kind of transmembrane proteins that exist in various organs of the human body. AQPs play an important role in regulating water transport, lipid metabolism and glycolysis of cells. Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is a common malignant tumor of the kidney, and the prognosis is worse than other types of renal cell cancer (RCC). The impact of AQPs on the prognosis of ccRCC and the potential relationship between AQPs and the occurrence and development of ccRCC are demanded to be investigated. In this study, we first explored the expression pattern of AQPs by using Oncomine, UALCAN, and HPA databases. Secondly, we constructed protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and performed function enrichment analysis through STRING, GeneMANIA, and Metascape. Then a comprehensive analysis of the genetic mutant frequency of AQPs in ccRCC was carried out using the cBioPortal database. In addition, we also analyzed the main enriched biological functions of AQPs and the correlation with seven main immune cells. Finally, we confirmed the prognostic value of AQPs throughGEPIA and Cox regression analysis. We found that the mRNA expression levels of AQP0/8/9/10 were up-regulated in patients with ccRCC, while those of AQP1/2/3/4/5/6/7/11 showed the opposite. Among them, the expression differences of AQP1/2/3/4/5/6/7/8/9/11 were statistically significant. The differences in protein expression levels of AQP1/2/3/4/5/6 in ccRCC and normal renal tissues were consistent with the change trends of mRNA. The biological functions of AQPs were mainly concentrated in water transport, homeostasis maintenance, glycerol transport, and intracellular movement of sugar transporters. The high mRNA expression levels of AQP0/8/9 were significantly correlated with worse overall survival (OS), while those of AQP1/4/7 were correlated with better OS. AQP0/1/4/9 were prognostic-related factors, and AQP1/9 were independent prognostic factors. In general, this research has investigated the values of AQPs in ccRCC, which could become new survival markers for ccRCC targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingrui Li
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Minxin He
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Fangshi Xu
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Yibing Guan
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Juanhua Tian
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Ziyan Wan
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Haibin Zhou
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Mei Gao
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Tie Chong
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
- * E-mail:
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3
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Li Z, Quan Y, Gu S, Jiang JX. Beyond the Channels: Adhesion Functions of Aquaporin 0 and Connexin 50 in Lens Development. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:866980. [PMID: 35465319 PMCID: PMC9022433 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.866980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Lens, an avascular tissue involved in light transmission, generates an internal microcirculatory system to promote ion and fluid circulation, thus providing nutrients to internal lens cells and excreting the waste. This unique system makes up for the lack of vasculature and distinctively maintains lens homeostasis and lens fiber cell survival through channels of connexins and other transporters. Aquaporins (AQP) and connexins (Cx) comprise the majority of channels in the lens microcirculation system and are, thus, essential for lens development and transparency. Mutations of AQPs and Cxs result in abnormal channel function and cataract formation. Interestingly, in the last decade or so, increasing evidence has emerged suggesting that in addition to their well-established channel functions, AQP0 and Cx50 play pivotal roles through channel-independent actions in lens development and transparency. Specifically, AQP0 and Cx50 have been shown to have a unique cell adhesion function that mediates lens development and transparency. Precise regulation of cell-matrix and cell-cell adhesion is necessary for cell migration, a critical process during lens development. This review will provide recent advances in basic research of cell adhesion mediated by AQP0 and Cx50.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, United States
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yumeng Quan
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Sumin Gu
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Jean X. Jiang
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, United States
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4
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Vorontsova I, Vallmitjana A, Torrado B, Schilling TF, Hall JE, Gratton E, Malacrida L. In vivo macromolecular crowding is differentially modulated by aquaporin 0 in zebrafish lens: Insights from a nanoenvironment sensor and spectral imaging. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabj4833. [PMID: 35171678 PMCID: PMC8849302 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abj4833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Macromolecular crowding is crucial for cellular homeostasis. In vivo studies of macromolecular crowding and water dynamics are needed to understand their roles in cellular physiology and fate determination. Macromolecular crowding in the lens is essential for normal optics, and an understanding of its regulation will help prevent cataract and presbyopia. Here, we combine the use of the nanoenvironmental sensor [6-acetyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene (ACDAN)] to visualize lens macromolecular crowding with in vivo studies of aquaporin 0 zebrafish mutants that disrupt its regulation. Spectral phasor analysis of ACDAN fluorescence reveals water dipolar relaxation and demonstrates that mutations in two zebrafish aquaporin 0s, Aqp0a and Aqp0b, alter water state and macromolecular crowding in living lenses. Our results provide in vivo evidence that Aqp0a promotes fluid influx in the deeper lens cortex, whereas Aqp0b facilitates fluid efflux. This evidence reveals previously unidentified spatial regulation of macromolecular crowding and spatially distinct roles for Aqp0 in the lens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Vorontsova
- Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | | | - Belén Torrado
- Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Thomas F. Schilling
- Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - James E. Hall
- Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Enrico Gratton
- Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Leonel Malacrida
- Departamento de Fisiopatología, Hospital de Clínicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Advanced Bioimaging Unit, Institut Pasteur of Montevideo and Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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5
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Differences in a Single Extracellular Residue Underlie Adhesive Functions of Two Zebrafish Aqp0s. Cells 2021; 10:cells10082005. [PMID: 34440774 PMCID: PMC8392583 DOI: 10.3390/cells10082005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aquaporin 0 (AQP0) is the most abundant lens membrane protein, and loss of function in human and animal models leads to cataract formation. AQP0 has several functions in the lens including water transport and adhesion. Since lens optics rely on strict tissue architecture achieved by compact cell-to-cell adhesion between lens fiber cells, understanding how AQP0 contributes to adhesion would shed light on normal lens physiology and pathophysiology. We show in an in vitro adhesion assay that one of two closely related zebrafish Aqp0s, Aqp0b, has strong auto-adhesive properties while Aqp0a does not. The difference appears to be largely due to a single amino acid difference at residue 110 in the extracellular C-loop, which is T in Aqp0a and N in Aqp0b. Similarly, P110 is the key residue required for adhesion in mammalian AQP0, highlighting the importance of residue 110 in AQP0 cell-to-cell adhesion in vertebrate lenses as well as the divergence of adhesive and water permeability functions in zebrafish duplicates.
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6
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Wang K, Vorontsova I, Hoshino M, Uesugi K, Yagi N, Hall JE, Schilling TF, Pierscionek BK. Aquaporins Have Regional Functions in Development of Refractive Index in the Zebrafish Eye Lens. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021; 62:23. [PMID: 33724295 PMCID: PMC7980049 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.62.3.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose In the eye lens, cytosolic protein concentrations increase progressively from the periphery to the center, contributing to the gradient of refractive index (GRIN). Aquaporins are membrane proteins of lens fiber cells that regulate water transport and adhesion and interact with cytoskeletal proteins. This study investigates how these membrane proteins contribute to proper development of the lens GRIN. Methods Loss-of-function deletions of aqp0a and/or aqp0b in zebrafish were generated using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Lenses of single aqp0a−/− mutants, single aqp0b−/− mutants, and double aqp0a−/−/aqp0b−/− mutants from larval to elderly adult stages were measured using x-ray Talbot interferometry at SPring8 in Japan. The three-dimensional GRIN profiles in two orthogonal cross-sectional planes of each lens were analyzed and compared with in vivo images and previous results obtained from wild-type lenses. Results Single aqp0a−/− mutants tended to show asymmetric GRIN profiles, with the central plateau regions shifted anteriorly. Single aqp0b−/− mutants had smooth, symmetric GRIN profiles throughout development until spoke opacities appeared in several extremely old samples. Double aqp0a−/−/aqp0b−/− mutants showed lower magnitude GRIN profiles, as well as dips in the central plateau region. Conclusions These findings suggest that Aqp0a and Aqp0b have region-specific functions in the lens: Aqp0a is active peripherally, regulating centralization of the plateau region, and this function cannot be compensated for by Aqp0b. In the lens center, either Aqp0a or Aqp0b is required for formation of the plateau region, as well as for the GRIN to reach its maximum magnitude in mature lenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kehao Wang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Irene Vorontsova
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States.,Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States
| | - Masato Hoshino
- Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Kentaro Uesugi
- Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Naoto Yagi
- Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute, Hyogo, Japan
| | - James Ewbank Hall
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States
| | - Thomas Friedrich Schilling
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States
| | - Barbara Krystyna Pierscionek
- School of Life Sciences and Education, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, United Kingdom.,Faculty of Health, Education, Medicine and Social Care, Chelmsford Campus, Anglia Ruskin University, United Kingdom
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7
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Nakazawa Y, Shibata T, Nagai N, Kubo E, Tamura H, Sasaki H. Degradation of connexin 50 protein causes waterclefts in human lens. Open Med (Wars) 2020; 15:1163-1171. [PMID: 33336073 PMCID: PMC7718650 DOI: 10.1515/med-2020-0249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cataracts are mainly classified into three types: cortical cataracts, nuclear cataracts, and posterior subcapsular cataracts. In addition, retrodots and waterclefts are cataract subtypes that cause decreased visual function. To maintain an orderly and tightly packed arrangement to minimize light scattering, adhesion molecules such as connexins and aquaporin 0 (AQP0) are highly expressed in the lens. We hypothesized that some main and/or subcataract type(s) are correlated with adhesion molecule degradation. Lens samples were collected from cataract patients during cataract surgery, and mRNA and protein expression levels were measured by real-time RT-PCR and western blotting, respectively. The mRNA levels of adhesion molecules were not significantly different among any cataract types. Moreover, AQP0 and connexin 46 protein expressions were unchanged among patients. However, connexin 50 protein level was significantly decreased in the lens of patients with WC cataract subtype. P62 and LC3B proteins were detected in the WC patients' lenses, but not in other patients' lenses. These results suggest that more research is needed on the subtypes of cataracts besides the three major types of cataract for tailor-made cataract therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosuke Nakazawa
- Division of Hygienic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Keio University, 1-5-30 Shibakoen, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-8512, Japan
| | - Teppei Shibata
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kanazawa Medical University, 1-1 Daigaku Uchinada-machi, Kahoku-gun, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
| | - Noriaki Nagai
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kindai University, 3-4-1, Kowakae, Higashiosaka City, Osaka 577-8502, Japan
| | - Eri Kubo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kanazawa Medical University, 1-1 Daigaku Uchinada-machi, Kahoku-gun, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
| | - Hiroomi Tamura
- Division of Hygienic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Keio University, 1-5-30 Shibakoen, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-8512, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Sasaki
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kanazawa Medical University, 1-1 Daigaku Uchinada-machi, Kahoku-gun, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
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8
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Nakazawa Y. Study of the Mechanisms of Maintaining the Transparency of the Lens and Treatment of Its Related Diseases for Making Anti-cataract and/or Anti-presbyopia Drugs. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI 2020; 140:1095-1099. [DOI: 10.1248/yakushi.20-00120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yosuke Nakazawa
- Division of Hygienic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Keio University
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9
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Kumari S, Taginik G, Varadaraj S, Varadaraj K. Positively charged amino acid residues in the extracellular loops A and C of lens aquaporin 0 interact with the negative charges in the plasma membrane to facilitate cell-to-cell adhesion. Exp Eye Res 2019; 185:107682. [PMID: 31150637 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
This investigation was undertaken to find out whether the positive charges in the Extracellular Loops A (ELA) and C (ELC) of Aquaporin 0 (AQP0) are involved in lens fiber cell-to-cell adhesion (CTCA), and the possible mechanism of CTCA. AQP0 ELA or ELC was substituted with the corresponding AQP1 loop via Polymerase Chain Reaction. Positively charged arginine (R) and histidine (H) of mouse AQP0 ELA and ELC were substituted individually with glutamine (Q) to create R33Q, H40Q, R113Q and H122Q by mutagenesis. cRNA expression, immunostaining, Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) studies and protein analyses showed localization of all mutants except AQP0-AQP1ELC chimera (AQP0 ELC substituted with AQP1 ELC) at the plasma membrane. Osmotic Swelling Assay revealed comparable water permeability (Pf) among AQP0-AQP1ELA, R33Q, R113Q, and WT. CTCA assay demonstrated a significant reduction in adhesion in all mutants compared to the WT (14-73%) suggesting the importance of the conserved positively charged residues of ELA and ELC for adhesion. Studies involving AQP0-transfected L-cells, and lipid vesicles indicated that CTCA was due to the electrostatic interaction between the positively charged amino acids of AQP0 extracellular loops and the negative charges of the plasma membrane. Schematic models are provided to illustrate the mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sindhu Kumari
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-8661, USA
| | - Gozde Taginik
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-8661, USA
| | - Sangeeth Varadaraj
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-8661, USA
| | - Kulandaiappan Varadaraj
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-8661, USA; SUNY Eye Institute, New York, NY, USA.
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10
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Vorontsova I, Gehring I, Hall JE, Schilling TF. Aqp0a Regulates Suture Stability in the Zebrafish Lens. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 59:2869-2879. [PMID: 30025131 PMCID: PMC5987579 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.18-24044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the roles of Aquaporin 0a (Aqp0a) and Aqp0b in zebrafish lens development and transparency. Methods CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing was used to generate loss-of-function deletions in zebrafish aqp0a and/or aqp0b. Wild type (WT), single mutant, and double mutant lenses were analyzed from embryonic to adult stages. Lens transparency, morphology, and growth were assessed. Immunohistochemistry was used to map protein localization as well as to assess tissue organization and distribution of cell nuclei. Results aqp0a−/− and/or aqp0b−/− cause embryonic cataracts with variable penetrance. While lenses of single mutants of either gene recover transparency in juveniles, double mutants consistently form dense cataracts that persist in adults, indicating partially redundant functions. Double mutants also reveal redundant Aqp0 functions in lens growth. The nucleus of WT lenses moves from the anterior pole to the lens center with age. In aqp0a−/− mutants, the nucleus fails to centralize as it does in WT or aqp0b−/− lenses, and in double mutant lenses there is no consistent lens nuclear position. In addition, the anterior sutures of aqp0a−/−, but not aqp0b−/− mutants, are unstable resulting in failure of suture maintenance at older stages and anterior polar opacity. Conclusions. Zebrafish Aqp0s have partially redundant functions, but only Aqp0a promotes suture stability, which directs the lens nucleus to centralize, failure of which results in anterior polar opacity. These studies support the hypothesis that the two Aqp0s subfunctionalized during fish evolution and that Aqp0-dependent maintenance of the anterior suture is essential for lens transparency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Vorontsova
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, California, United States.,Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, California, United States
| | - Ines Gehring
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, California, United States
| | - James E Hall
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, California, United States
| | - Thomas F Schilling
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, California, United States
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