Formulation, optimization, hemocompatibility and pharmacokinetic evaluation of PLGA nanoparticles containing paclitaxel

Is it advantageous to use quality by design (QbD) to develop nanoparticle-based dosage forms for parenteral drug administration?

Parenteral administration is one of the most commonly used drug delivery routes for nanoparticle-based dosage forms, such as lipid-based and polymeric nanoparticles. For the treatment of various diseases, parenteral administration include intravenous, subcutaneous, and intramuscular route. In drug development phase, multiparameter strategy with a focus on drug physicochemical properties and the specificity of the administration route is required. Nanoparticle properties in terms of size and targeted delivery, among others, are able to surpass many drawbacks of conventional dosage forms, but these unique properties can be a bottleneck for approval by regulatory authorities. Quality by Design (QbD) approach has been widely utilized in development of parenteral nanoparticle-based dosage forms. It fosters knowledge of product and process quality by involving sound scientific data and risk assessment strategies. A full and comprehensive investigation into the state of implementation and applications of the QbD approach in these complex drug products can highlight the gaps and challenges. In this review, the analysis of critical attributes and Design of Experiment (DoE) approach in different nanoparticulate systems, together with the proper utilization of Process Analytical Technology (PAT) applications are described. The essential of QbD approach for the design and development of nanoparticle-based dosage forms for delivery via parenteral routes is discussed thoroughly.

Natural products in the management of neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases represent one of the utmost imperative well-being health issues and apprehensions due to their escalating incidence of mortality. Natural derivatives are more efficacious in various preclinical models of neurodegenerative illnesses. These natural compounds include phytoconstituents in herbs, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and marine and freshwater flora, with remarkable efficacy in mitigating neurodegeneration and enhancing cognitive abilities in preclinical models. According to the latest research, the therapeutic activity of natural substances can be increased by adding phytoconstituents in nanocarriers such as nanoparticles, nanogels, and nanostructured lipid carriers. They can enhance the stability and specificity of the bioactive compounds to a more considerable extent. Nanotechnology can also provide targeting, enhancing their specificity to the respective site of action. In light of these findings, this article discusses the biological and therapeutic potential of natural products and their bioactive derivatives to exert neuroprotective effects and some clinical studies assessing their translational potential to treat neurodegenerative disorders.

An enhanced cardio-protective effect of nanoparticles loaded with active components from Polygonum orientale L. against isoproterenol-induced myocardial ischemia in rats

In this study, nanoparticles loaded with active components from Polygonum orientale L. (PO), a traditional Chinese herb known for its anti-myocardial ischemic properties, were investigated for cardio-protective properties. Specifically, OVQ-Nanoparticles (OVQ-NPs) with Orientin (Ori), Vitexin (Vit), and Quercetin (Que) was obtained by double emulsion-solvent evaporation method. The OVQ-NPs exhibited a spherical shape, with a uniform size distribution of 136.77 ± 3.88 nm and a stable ζ-potential of -13.40 ± 2.24 mV. Notably, these nanoparticles exhibited a favorable sustained-release characteristic, resulting in an extended circulation time within the living organism. Consequently, the administration of these nanoparticles resulted in significant improvements in electrocardiograms and heart mass index of myocardial ischemic rats induced by isoproterenol, as well as decreased serum levels of CK, LDH, and AST. Furthermore, the results of histopathological examination, such as H&E staining and TUNEL staining, confirmed a reduced level of cardiac tissue pathology and apoptosis. Moreover, the quantification of biochemical indicators (SOD, MDA, GSH, NO, TNF-α, and IL-6) demonstrated that OVQ-NPs effectively mitigated myocardial ischemia by regulating oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways. In conclusion, OVQ-NPs demonstrate promising therapeutic potential as an intervention for myocardial ischemia, providing a new perspective on traditional Chinese medicine treatment in this area.

In Vitro/In Vivo Preparation and Evaluation of cRGDyK Peptide-Modified Polydopamine-Bridged Paclitaxel-Loaded Nanoparticles

Cancer remains a disease with one of the highest mortality rates worldwide. The poor water solubility and tissue selectivity of commonly used chemotherapeutic agents contribute to their poor efficacy and serious adverse effects. This study proposes an alternative to the traditional physicochemically combined modifications used to develop targeted drug delivery systems, involving a simpler surface modification strategy. cRGDyK peptide (RGD)-modified PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with paclitaxel were constructed by coating the NP surfaces with polydopamine (PD). The average particle size of the produced NPs was 137.6 ± 2.9 nm, with an encapsulation rate of over 80%. In vitro release tests showed that the NPs had pH-responsive drug release properties. Cellular uptake experiments showed that the uptake of modified NPs by tumor cells was significantly better than that of unmodified NPs. A tumor cytotoxicity assay demonstrated that the modified NPs had a lower IC50 and greater cytotoxicity than those of unmodified NPs and commercially available paclitaxel formulations. An in vitro cytotoxicity study indicated good biosafety. A tumor model in female BALB/c rats was established using murine-derived breast cancer 4T1 cells. RGD-modified NPs had the highest tumor-weight suppression rate, which was higher than that of the commercially available formulation. PTX-PD-RGD-NPs can overcome the limitations of antitumor drugs, reduce drug toxicity, and increase efficacy, showing promising potential in cancer therapy.

Nanobio Interface Between Proteins and 2D Nanomaterials

Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials have significantly contributed to recent advances in material sciences and nanotechnology, owing to their layered structure. Despite their potential as multifunctional theranostic agents, the biomedical translation of these materials is limited due to a lack of knowledge and control over their interaction with complex biological systems. In a biological microenvironment, the high surface energy of nanomaterials leads to diverse interactions with biological moieties such as proteins, which play a crucial role in unique physiological processes. These interactions can alter the size, surface charge, shape, and interfacial composition of the nanomaterial, ultimately affecting its biological activity and identity. This review critically discusses the possible interactions between proteins and 2D nanomaterials, along with a wide spectrum of analytical techniques that can be used to study and characterize such interplay. A better understanding of these interactions would help circumvent potential risks and provide guidance toward the safer design of 2D nanomaterials as a platform technology for various biomedical applications.

The Usefulness of Nanotechnology in Improving the Prognosis of Lung Cancer

Lung cancer remains a major public health problem both in terms of incidence and specific mortality despite recent developments in terms of prevention, such as smoking reduction policies and clinical management advances. Better lung cancer prognosis could be achieved by early and accurate diagnosis and improved therapeutic interventions. Nanotechnology is a dynamic and fast-developing field; various medical applications have been developed and deployed, and more exist as proofs of concepts or experimental models. We aim to summarize current knowledge relevant to the use of nanotechnology in lung cancer management. Starting from the chemical structure-based classification of nanoparticles, we identify and review various practical implementations roughly organized as diagnostic or therapeutic in scope, ranging from innovative contrast agents to targeted drug carriers. Available data are presented starting with standards of practice and moving to highly experimental methods and proofs of concept; particularities, advantages, limits and future directions are explored, focusing on the potential impact on lung cancer clinical prognosis.

Natural Products-based Drugs: Potential Drug Targets Against Neurological Degeneration

Phytochemicals or natural products have been studied extensively for their potential in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, etc. The neuronal structure loss and progressive dysfunction are the main characteristics of these diseases. In spite of impressive and thorough knowledge of neurodegenerative molecular pathways, little advancement has been found in the treatment of the same. Moreover, it was proved that natural products can be used efficiently in the treatment of NDs while certain issues regarding the patient's safety and clinical data are still existing. As ND is a bunch of diseases and it will start the myriad of pathological processes, active targeting of the molecular pathway behind ND will be the most efficient strategy to treat all ND-related diseases. The targeting pathway must prevent cell death and should restore the damaged neurons. In the treatment of ND and related diseases, natural products are playing the role of neuroprotective agents. This review will target the therapeutic potential of various phytochemicals which shows neuroprotective action.

Targeted Nanoparticles for the Binding of Injured Vascular Endothelium after Percutaneous Coronary Intervention

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is a common procedure for the management of coronary artery obstruction. However, it usually causes vascular wall injury leading to restenosis that limits the long-term success of the PCI endeavor. The ultimate objective of this study was to develop the targeting nanoparticles (NPs) that were destined for the injured subendothelium and attract endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) to the damaged location for endothelium regeneration. Biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs were conjugated with double targeting moieties, which are glycoprotein Ib alpha chain (GPIbα) and human single-chain antibody variable fragment (HuscFv) specific to the cluster of differentiation 34 (CD34). GPIb is a platelet receptor that interacts with the von Willebrand factor (vWF), highly deposited on the damaged subendothelial surface, while CD34 is a surface marker of EPCs. A candidate anti-CD34 HuscFv was successfully constructed using a phage display biopanning technique. The HuscFv could be purified and showed binding affinity to the CD34-positive cells. The GPIb-conjugated NPs (GPIb-NPs) could target vWF and prevent platelet adherence to vWF in vitro. Furthermore, the HuscFv-conjugated NPs (HuscFv-NPs) could capture CD34-positive cells. The bispecific NPs have high potential to locate at the damaged subendothelial surface and capture EPCs for accelerating the vessel repair.

Study on the Mechanism of Action of Paclitaxel-Loaded Polylactic-co-glycolic Acid Nanoparticles in Non-Small-Cell Lung Carcinoma Cells

Objective. To study effective carriers that can enhance the antitumor effect of paclitaxel (PTX). Methods. PTX-loaded polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) (PTX-PLGA NPs), constructed using the emulsification solvent evaporation method, were characterized by scanning electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. Non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) cells were divided into the dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) group, PLGA NPs group, PTX group, and PTX-PLGA NPs group. Cell viability was detected by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), cell apoptosis was determined by flow cytometry, and cell migration and invasion were assessed using Transwell assay. Results. PTX-PLGA NPs were smooth in the surface and spherical in shape, with a particle size of $268\pm 1.3$  nm. Both PTX and PTX-PLGA NPs could effectively inhibit the activity of A549 and H1650 cells. At 12 and 24 h, PTX-PLGA NPs presented weaker inhibition on the activity of NSCLC cells than PTX, but at 48 and 72 h, PTX-PLGA NPs presented stronger inhibition. Compared with PTX, PTX-PLGA NPs were more effective in enhancing apoptosis and inhibiting migration and invasion of NSCLC cells. Conclusion. With good sustained release and the ability to promote cellular uptake, PTX-PLGA NPs can strongly inhibit the malignant activities of NSCLC cells, which can be used as a promising drug carrier.

Development and optimization of paclitaxel loaded Eudragit/PLGA nanoparticles by simplex lattice mixture design: Exploration of improved hemocompatibility and in vivo kinetics

Anemia is the most common hematological abnormality of chemotherapy, which is responsible for poor clinical outcomes. To overcome this complication, the present study was aimed for developing a Eudragit/polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) based nanoparticulate system for a model drug paclitaxel (PTX). The study was planned using a simplex lattice mixture design. PTX nanoparticles (PTXNp) were evaluated in vitro for physicochemical properties, hemolytic effects and cytotoxic effects. Further, the nanoparticles were subjected to in vivo screening using rats for hemocompatibility, pharmacokinetic profile, and biodistribution to the vital organs. The PTXNps were 65.77-214.73 nm in size, showed more than 60% sustained drug release in 360 h and caused less than 8% hemolysis. The parameters like red blood cell count, activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), prothrombin time (PT) and C3 complement were similar to the negative control. Cytotoxicity results suggested that all the PTXNp demonstrated drug concentration-dependent cytotoxicity. The in vivo pharmacokinetic study concluded that PTXNp formulations had significantly higher blood AUC (93.194.55-163,071.15 h*ng/mL), longer half-lives (5.80-6.35 h) and extended mean residence times (6.05-8.54 h) in comparison to PTX solution (p < 0.05). Overall, the study provides a nanoparticulate drug delivery system to deliver PTX safely and effectively along with reducing the associated hematological adverse effects.

Relationship and improvement strategies between drug nanocarrier characteristics and hemocompatibility: What can we learn from the literature

This article discusses the various blood interactions that may occur with various types of nano drug-loading systems. Nanoparticles enter the blood circulation as foreign objects. On the one hand, they may cause a series of inflammatory reactions and immune reactions, resulting in the rapid elimination of immune cells and the reticuloendothelial system, affecting their durability in the blood circulation. On the other hand, the premise of the drug-carrying system to play a therapeutic role depends on whether they cause coagulation and platelet activation, the absence of hemolysis and the elimination of immune cells. For different forms of nano drug-carrying systems, we can find the characteristics, elements and coping strategies of adverse blood reactions that we can find in previous researches. These adverse reactions may include destruction of blood cells, abnormal coagulation system, abnormal effects of plasma proteins, abnormal blood cell behavior, adverse immune and inflammatory reactions, and excessive vascular stimulation. In order to provide help for future research and formulation work on the blood compatibility of nano drug carriers.

Paeonol-loaded PLGA nanoparticles as an oral drug delivery system: Design, optimization and evaluation

Herein, we report a novel type of NPs by loading paeonol (Pae) into PLGA NPs, to enhance drug stability and oral bioavailability. The paeonol (Pae)-loaded polylactic-co-Gly-colic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (Pae-PLGA-NPs) were prepared by nanoprecipitation method. The resultant NPs were in spherical shape with an average particle size around 237.7 ± 4.92 nm, and the PDI and zeta potential were 0.110 ± 0.01 and -25.33 ± 1.37 mV, respectively. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) and drug loading (DL) of the Pae-PLGA-NPs were 86.26 ± 1.12 and 12.74 ± 0.37% respectively. The in vitro drug release, in vivo pharmacokinetics and in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIPs) of Pae-PLGA-NPs was investigated. In vivo, the AUC_(0-t), C _max, MRT_(0-t), and T_1/2z of the Pae-PLGA-NPs group were 3.79-, 1.89-, 1.40- and 1.49-fold greater than those of the Pae suspension group, respectively. The in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion of NPs results showed the Ka values in the duodenum, jejunum, ileum and colon were 1.12-, 1.40-, 1.52- and 2.21-fold higher than those of Pae solution, respectively. Moreover, the Papp values of the ileum and colon were 1.27- and 1.31-fold higher than those of the solution group. Such findings suggested the Pae-PLGA-NPs can significantly improve the intestinal absorption characteristics, and have a beneficial effect on oral administration as a nanometer-sized carrier.

Design of experiments (DoE) to develop and to optimize nanoparticles as drug delivery systems

Nanotechnology has been widely applied to develop drug delivery systems to improve therapeutic performance. The effectiveness of these systems is intrinsically related to their physicochemical properties, so their biological responses are highly susceptible to factors such as the type and quantity of each material that is employed in their synthesis and to the method that is used to produce them. In this context, quality-oriented manufacturing of nanoparticles has been an important strategy to understand and to optimize the factors involved in their production. For this purpose, Design of Experiment (DoE) tools have been applied to obtain enough knowledge about the process and hence achieve high-quality products. This review aims to set up the bases to implement DoE as a strategy to improve the manufacture of nanocarriers and to discuss the main factors involved in the production of the most common nanocarriers employed in the pharmaceutical field.

Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery to Solid Tumors

Advances in nanotechnology have favored the development of novel colloidal formulations able to modulate the pharmacological and biopharmaceutical properties of drugs. The peculiar physico-chemical and technological properties of nanomaterial-based therapeutics have allowed for several successful applications in the treatment of cancer. The size, shape, charge and patterning of nanoscale therapeutic molecules are parameters that need to be investigated and modulated in order to promote and optimize cell and tissue interaction. In this review, the use of polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery systems of anticancer compounds, their physico-chemical properties and their ability to be efficiently localized in specific tumor tissues have been described. The nanoencapsulation of antitumor active compounds in polymeric systems is a promising approach to improve the efficacy of various tumor treatments.

Antitumor Effects of Self-Assembling Peptide-Emodin in situ Hydrogels in vitro and in vivo

PURPOSE

To study the in vitro and in vivo antitumor effects of the colloidal suspension-in situ hydrogel of emodin (EM) constructed with the self-assembling peptide RADA16-I and systematically evaluate the feasibility of the delivery system.

METHODS

The MTT and colony-formation assays were used to determine the viability of normal cells NCTC 1469 and tumor cells Hepa1-6. The uptake of EM in the RADA16-I-EM in situ hydrogel by tumor cells was analyzed by laser confocal microscope and flow cytometry. Flow cytometry was used to detect the cell apoptosis and cell cycle distribution. Transwell assay was used to detect the migration and invasion of tumor cells. The antitumor efficacy of the RADA16-I-EM in situ hydrogel and its toxic effects was further assessed in vivo on Hepa1-6 tumor-bearing C57 mice.

RESULTS

The results showed that the RADA16-I-EM in situ hydrogels could obviously reduce the toxicity of EM to normal cells and the survival of tumor cells. The uptake of EM by the cells from the hydrogels was obviously increased and could significantly induce apoptosis and arrest cell cycle in the G2/M phase, and reduce the migration, invasion and clone-formation ability of the cells. The RADA16-I-EM in situ hydrogel could also effectively inhibit the tumor growth and obviously decrease the toxic effects of EM on normal tissues in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrated that RADA16-I has the potential to be a carrier for the hydrophobic drug EM and can effectively improve the delivery of hydrophobic antitumor drugs with enhanced antitumor effects and reduced toxic effects of the drugs on normal cells and tissues.

Hemocompatibility of Silver Nanoparticles Based on Conjugate of Quaternized Chitosan with Gallic Acid in In Vitro Experiments

We studied hemocompatibility of silver nanoparticles synthesized on the basis of a conjugate of quaternized chitosan with gallic acid (QChit-Gal). For the three variants of silver particles (Nos. 1, 2, and 3), the QChit-Gal:AgNO₃ ratio was 5:1, 5:3, and 1:1, respectively. Anticoagulant activity of all samples of silver nanoparticles was lower than that of the conjugate. Samples of nanoparticles Nos. 1 and 2 in a concentration of 0.0233 mg/ml did not affect plasma clotting time and can be used for intravenous administration. However, their concentration in the blood should not exceed 0.01 mg/ml, because in this concentration they do not affect erythrocyte membrane, do not induce platelet aggregation, and do not affect platelet aggregation induced by ADP.

Impregnation of Curcumin into a Biodegradable (Poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid, PLGA) Support, to Transfer Its Well Known In Vitro Effect to an In Vivo Prostate Cancer Model

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common cancers in older men and is associated with high mortality. Despite advances in screening for early detection of PCa, a large proportion of patients continue to be diagnosed with metastatic disease, with ~20% of men showing a high tumor grade and stage. Medicinal plant extracts have a great potential to prevent/treat PCa, as well as to reduce its incidence/prevalence and improve survival rates. One of the most promising extracts is curcumin, which is a major, nontoxic, bioactive compound of Curcuma longa. Curcumin has strong antitumor activity in vitro. However, its potential beneficial in vivo affects are limited by its low intestinal absorption and rapid metabolism. In this study, curcumin was impregnated into a biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) support and characterized by FTIR and DSC, and its release by UV spectrophotometry. PLGA-curcumin was tested in different subcutaneous PCa xenograft models (PC3, 22rv1, and DU145 PCa cell-lines), and its effects evaluated by tumor progression an immuno-histochemical analysis (Trichromic, Ki67 and TUNEL stainings), were compared with those of a commercial curcumin preparation. Our results indicate that curcumin-impregnated PLGA is significantly more active (~2-fold increase) with respect to oral curcumin, which supports its use for subcutaneous administration.

Paclitaxel-Loaded Nanosponges Inhibit Growth and Angiogenesis in Melanoma Cell Models

This study investigated the effects of free paclitaxel (PTX) and PTX-loaded in pyromellitic nanosponges (PTX-PNS) in reducing in vitro and in vivo melanoma cell growth and invasivity, and in inhibiting angiogenesis. To test the response of cells to the two PTX formulations, the cell viability was evaluated by MTT assay in seven continuous cell lines, in primary melanoma cells, both in 2D and 3D cultures, and in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) after exposure to different concentrations of PTX or PTX-PNS. Cell motility was assessed by a scratch assay or Boyden chamber assay, evaluating cell migration in presence or absence of diverse concentrations of PTX or PTX-PNS. The effect of PTX and PTX-PNS on angiogenesis was evaluated as endothelial tube formation assay, a test able to estimate the formation of three-dimensional vessels in vitro. To assess the anticancer effect of PTX and PTX-PNS in in vivo experiments, the two drug formulations were tested in a melanoma mouse model obtained by B16-BL6 cell implantation in C57/BL6 mice. Results obtained were as follows: 1) MTT analysis revealed that cell proliferation was more affected by PTX-PNS than by PTX in all tested cell lines, in both 2D and 3D cultures; 2) the analysis of the cell migration showed that PTX-PNS acted at very lower concentrations than PTX; 3) tube formation assay showed that PTX-PNS were more effective in inhibiting tube formation than free PTX; and 4) in vivo experiments demonstrated that tumor weights, volumes, and growth were significantly reduced by PTX-PNS treatment with respect to PTX; the angiogenesis and the cell proliferation, detected in the tumor samples with CD31 and Ki-67 antibodies, respectively, indicated that, in the PTX-PNS-treated tumors, the tube formation was inhibited, and a low amount of proliferating cells was present. Taken together, our data demonstrated that our new PTX nanoformulation can respond to some important issues related to PTX treatment, lowering the anti-tumor effective doses and increasing the effectiveness in inhibiting melanoma growth in vivo.