Biodegradative and biosynthetic capacities of mushrooms: present and future strategies

Mushroom Production in the Southern Cone of South America: Bioeconomy, Sustainable Development and Its Current Bloom

A Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) based analysis is presented here for business development of the production of edible and medicinal mushrooms using agro-wastes in the Southern Cone of South America. This circular economy approach using edible and medicinal mushroom production on lignocellulosic residues is discussed by analysing both its advantages and drawbacks. Among its main benefits, it is notable that mushroom cultivation using lignocellulosic residues promotes innovation aimed at environmental sustainability, facilitating diversification of the labour supply and the transfer of science to the socio-cultural sphere, which also increases the availability of healthy foods. However, there are some bottlenecks in the process, such as the continuous supply chain of substrates for fungal growth, the lack of equipment and infrastructure for the implementation of cultivation systems in extreme habitats, as well as authorization requirements and other limitations related to a non-fungiphilic culture society. Therefore, this chapter tries to provide key tools for establishing sustainable guidelines for the procurement of local healthy food and other products derived from mushroom cultivation using agricultural residues in the region, which might bloom due to an SDGs-based circular economy approach.

Cultivation of Different Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus species) on Coffee Waste and Determination of Their Relative Biological Efficiency and Pectinase Enzyme Production, Ethiopia

Cultivation of specialty mushrooms on lignocellulosic wastes represents one of the most economic and cost-effective organic recycling processes. Solid-state cultivation (SSC) was carried out to evaluate the feasibility of using coffee waste (husk and parchment) as substrate for cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus species). The periods for spawn running, pinhead and fruit body formation, number of flushes, yield, and biological efficiency of the four Pleurotus species (P. citrinopileatus, P. eryngii, P. ostreatus, and P. sapidus) grown on coffee husk and parchment were studied. The results revealed that the time for the first appearance of pinhead was shortest for P. ostreatus (20–21) days followed by P. sapidus (22–23) days on coffee husks, while P. eryngii and P. citrinopileatus required 26–27 days and 23–24 days, respectively, on the some substrate. All the four Pleurotus species recorded at least four flushes and three flushes on coffee husk and parchment, respectively; flush 1 gave the highest yield while flush 3 and 4 gave the lowest yield. The biological efficiency (B.E.) for P. citrinopileatus, P. eryngii, P. ostreatus and P. sapidus obtained from fresh coffee husk was 26.54, 40.94, 60.33, and 55.72, respectively. Significant differences (P < 0.05) in yield and % B.E. of the four mushrooms species were recorded. The results also showed that the B.E. (61.92%) of P. ostreatus grown on composted coffee husk was insignificantly higher (P < 0.05) than that grown on noncomposted coffee husk (60.33). The yields of P. sapidus obtained from the two substrates were almost comparable with that of P. ostreatus. There was a significant difference at (P < 0.05) observed between noncomposted and composted coffee husk and coffee parchment as well as between coffee husk and coffee parchment on yield and biological efficiency (B.E.). Composted coffee waste is more efficient than noncomposted one. Pectinase enzymes productions by these mushrooms were also studied. They are known to produce extracellular enzymes, particularly pectinase, which contribute to the biochemical decomposition of pectin-rich lignocellulosic wastes biomass. Accordingly, P. sapidus showed more pectolytic activities followed by P. ostreatus. But the pectolytic activity showed by P. eryngii and P. citrinopileatus was relatively lower. The implications of this study are the feasibility of using composted coffee husks and coffee parchment with the supplementary substrate to cultivate very protein-rich mushrooms for food in solid-state cultivation (SSC) while at the same time promoting environmental sustainability.

Mushrooms-Rich Preparations on Wound Healing: From Nutritional to Medicinal Attributes

Mushrooms have a significant role in human diet as functional food and as a nutraceutical resource. The combination of its umami flavor, protein, vitamins, minerals and carbohydrates has meant that mushrooms could be considered a cheap food source for a long time in many countries. Moreover, mushrooms contain an excellent variety of bioactive metabolites that can be successful in both prevention and treatment of various human health hazards. In addition, extracts from medicinal mushrooms and their metabolites have been verified for wound treating with contribution to different mechanisms of the healing process. This review summarizes the nutritional value and composition of mushrooms, ethnobiology and ethnopharmacology, and wound healing potential.

Kinetics of colour and texture changes of button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) coated with chitosan during storage at low temperature

Kinetics of color and texture changes in coated button mushrooms were investigated as a function of coating agent's rate (1%, 2% and 3% w/v chitosan). The inner and outer surface colours of mushrooms in terms of CIELAB parameters L*, a*, b*, C*, ° h, ∆E, and Browning Index (BI), and their textural properties in terms of firmness were evaluated. The color values on both sides of the mushrooms except for L* values increased and their firmness decreased with the coating treatment. The color changes of the inner and outer surface of mushrooms and their texture changes followed zero-order reaction models with higher R2 (0.9987-0.9999) and lower RMSE (4.8448 x 10-5-1.6690) and χ2 values (3.9120 x 10-9-4.6425). The 2% chitosan solution was determined to be the most effective coating agent among the coating agents used to extend the post-harvest shelf life by optimally preserving the color parameters of the mushrooms together with their texture properties.

Arsenic biosorption using pretreated biomass of psychrotolerant Yersinia sp. strain SOM-12D3 isolated from Svalbard, Arctic

A Gram-negative, arsenite-resistant psychrotolerant bacterial strain, Yersinia sp. strain SOM-12D3, was isolated from a biofilm sample collected from a lake at Svalbard in the Arctic area. To our knowledge, this is the first study on the ability of acid-treated and untreated, non-living biomass of strain SOM-12D3 to absorb arsenic. We conducted batch experiments at pH 7, with an initial As(III) concentration of 6.5 ppm, at 30 °C with 80 min of contact time. The Langmuir isotherm model fitted the equilibrium data better than Freundlich, and the sorption kinetics of As(III) biosorption followed the pseudo-second-order rate equation well for both types of non-living biomass. The highest biosorption capacity of the acid-treated biomass obtained by the Langmuir model was 159 mg/g. Further, a high recovery efficiency of 96% for As(III) was achieved using 0.1 M HCl within four cycles, which indicated high adsorption/desorption. Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) demonstrated the involvement of hydroxyl, amide, and amine groups in As(III) biosorption. Field emission scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive analysis (FESEM-EDAX) indicated the different morphological changes occurring in the cell after acid treatment and arsenic biosorption. Our results highlight the potential of using acid-treated non-living biomass of the psychrotolerant bacterium, Yersinia sp. Strain SOM-12D3 as a new biosorbent to remove As(III) from contaminated waters.

Identification, heterologous expression and characterization of a dye-decolorizing peroxidase of Pleurotus sapidus

The coding sequence of a peroxidase from the secretome of Pleurotus sapidus was cloned from a cDNA library. Bioinformatic analyses revealed an open reading frame of 1551 bp corresponding to a primary translation product of 516 amino acids. The DyP-type peroxidase was heterologously produced in Trichoderma reesei with an activity of 55,000 U L^-1. The enzyme was purified from the culture supernatant, biochemically characterized and the kinetic parameters were determined. The enzyme has an N-terminal signal peptide composed of 62 amino acids. Analysis by Blue Native PAGE and activity staining with ABTS, as well as gel filtration chromatography showed the native dimeric state of the enzyme (115 kDa). Analysis of the substrate range revealed that the recombinant enzyme catalyzes, in addition to the conversion of some classic peroxidase substrates such as 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylthiazoline-6-sulfonate) and substituted phenols like 2,6-dimethoxyphenol, also the decolorization of the anthraquinonic dye Reactive Blue 5. The enzyme also catalyzes bleaching of natural colorants such as β-carotene and annatto. Surprisingly, β-carotene was transformed in the presence and absence of H₂O₂ by rPsaDyP, however enzyme activity was increased by the addition of H₂O₂. This indicates that the rPsaDyP has an oxidase function in addition to a peroxidase activity. As a consequence of the high affinity to the characteristic substrate Reactive Blue 5 the rPsaDyP belongs functionally to the dyp-type peroxidase family.

Effect of Pleurotus eryngii Mushroom β-Glucan on Quality Characteristics of Common Wheat Pasta

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of β-glucan-rich fractions (BGRFs) from Pleurotus eryngii mushroom powder on the quality, textural properties, and sensory evaluation of common wheat pasta. Pasta was prepared from semolina flour and common wheat flour by replacing common wheat flour at 2%, 4%, and 6% with BGRFs. Semolina flour showed significantly higher viscosities than common wheat flour samples. However, all viscosities, except the breakdown viscosity, were reduced with increasing percentages of BGRFs. Replacement of the common wheat flour with BGRFs resulted in a reddish brown colored pasta with a lower L* value and a higher a* value. The common wheat pastas containing up to 4% BGRFs were not significantly different from semolina pasta with regard to cooking loss. Addition of up to 2% BGRFs had no significant impact on swelling index and water absorption. The addition of BGRFs in common wheat flour had a positive effect on the quality of common wheat pasta and resulted in hardness values similar to those of semolina pasta. In a sensory evaluation, cooked pasta with 2% BGRFs had the highest overall acceptability score. In summary, the results showed that common wheat flour containing 4% BGRFs could be used to produce pasta with an improved quality and texture properties similar to semolina pasta.

Lactarius rufus (1→3),(1→6)-β-D-glucans: structure, antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects

Medicinal health benefits uses of edible as well as non-edible mushrooms have been long recognized. The pharmacological potential of mushrooms, especially antitumor, immunostimulatory and anti-inflammatory activities has been documented. Wild ectomycorrhizal mushroom, Lactarius rufus had the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive potential of their polysaccharides evaluated using the formalin model. Two structurally different (1→3),(1→6)-linked β-D-glucans were isolated from fruiting bodies. Soluble (FSHW) β-D-glucan 1-30 mg kg(-1) produced potent inhibition of inflammatory pain caused by formalin when compared with the insoluble one (IHW), suggesting that solubility and/or branching degree could alter the activity of β-glucans. Their structures were determined using mono- and bi-dimensional NMR spectroscopy, methylation analysis, and controlled Smith degradation. They were β-D-glucans, with a main chain of (1→3)-linked Glcp residues, substituted at O-6 by single-unit Glcp side chains (IHW), on average to every fourth residue of the backbone, or by mono- and few oligosaccharide side chains for soluble β-glucan.

Mineral Composition of Four Edible Mushrooms

Two cultivated mushroom species, namely,Lentinula edodes and Pleurotus floridaand two wild growing speciesLentinus cladopusandPleurotus djamorwere studied for their mineral contents such as Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Ni, Se, Pb, and Cd by Inductive Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and also Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, (AAS). Phosphorus was estimated by spectrophotometric method. K, Ca, Na, and P were in higher concentrations ranging from 59.3 mg to 3634 mg, 8.27 mg–174.9 mg, 22.2 mg–327.4 mg, and 100.5 mg–769.9 mg/100 g dry weight respectively in the four mushroom species studied. Fe, Zn, Mg and Se were ranging from 6.27 mg to 35.3 mg, 1.58 mg–9.44 mg, 21.1 mg–40.7 mg and 0.048 mg–0.182 mg/100 g dry weight, respectively, amongst the mushroom species analyzed. However, Ni, Cu, and Mn contents showed relatively lower concentrations, whereas Pb and Cd were below detectable level. The mushrooms were safe for consumption, in accordance with the permissible tolerance limits of the estimated toxic metals. Implications of the mineral contents on mushroom nutritional value are highlighted.

Recent advances in extending the shelf life of fresh Agaricus mushrooms: a review

Postharvest browning of Agaricus mushrooms is a severe problem that reduces the shelf life of harvested mushrooms because of their continued respiration and biochemical activity. There are no simple answers and no single treatment is known to limit overall quality deterioration. However, there are several strategies that are being implemented in order to reduce the rate of respiration for mushrooms. Packaging technology is the common denominator that allows us to implement these strategies and thus is key to quality preservation. In this review, first, the major factors involved in postharvest quality deterioration are discussed and then technological advances/methods used to counteract these hurdles are presented.

Ganoderma lucidum(‘Lingzhi’), a Chinese medicinal mushroom: biomarker responses in a controlled human supplementation study

Lingzhi (Ganoderma lucidum) is a woody mushroom highly regarded in traditional medicine and is widely consumed in the belief that it promotes health and longevity, lowers the risk of cancer and heart disease and boosts the immune system. However, objective scientific validation of the putative health benefits of Lingzhi in human subjects is lacking, and issues of possible toxicity must be addressed. The present double-blinded, placebo-controlled, cross-over intervention study investigated the effects of 4 weeks Lingzhi supplementation on a range of biomarkers for antioxidant status, CHD risk, DNA damage, immune status, and inflammation, as well as markers of liver and renal toxicity. It was performed as a follow-up to a study that showed that antioxidant power in plasma increased after Lingzhi ingestion, and that 10 d supplementation was associated with a trend towards an improved CHD biomarker profile. In the present study, fasting blood and urine from healthy, consenting adults (n18; aged 22–52 years) was collected before and after 4 weeks supplementation with a commercially available encapsulated Lingzhi preparation (1·44 g Lingzhi/d; equivalent to 13·2 g fresh mushroom/d) or placebo. No significant change in any of the variables was found, although a slight trend toward lower lipids was again seen, and antioxidant capacity in urine increased. The results showed no evidence of liver, renal or DNA toxicity with Lingzhi intake, and this is reassuring. The present study of the effects in healthy, well-nourished subjects provides useful, new scientific data that will support controlled intervention trials using at-risk subjects in order to assess the therapeutic effect of Lingzhi in the promotion of healthy ageing.

Antioxidant activity of indigenous edible mushrooms

The current study was undertaken to measure the antioxidant potential from water and methanolic extracts of fruiting bodies of 23 species of mushrooms naturally grown in different geographic locations of India. The antioxidant ability of each species was analyzed for the total antioxidative status, employing multimechanistic antioxidative assays such as inhibition of lipid peroxidation, determination of reducing power, and free radical scavenging ability, in addition to determination of total phenolics and identification of phenolic acids by HPLC analysis, because the phenolics are known to contribute largely to antioxidant potential. The antioxidant potential of these varieties of mushrooms was determined by summing the antioxidative activity (AOA) of each variety by varied antioxidant assays followed by determining the relative percent of AOA defined as the "antioxidant index" (AI). On the basis of the AI, the mushroom species were graded as very high, high, moderate, and low. Termitomyces heimii was identified as the best variety, which showed 100% AI with 37 mg of phenolics/g of sample, 418 units of reducing power ability (RPA)/g, and an IC50 of approximately 1.1 mg (dry weight)/mL, free radical scavenging activity (FRS) in the water extract followed by 11.2 mg of phenolics/g, 275 units of RPA/g, and an IC50 of approximately 2.7 mg (dry weight)/mL of FRS in the methanolic extract. Following T. heimii, Termitomyces mummiformis exhibited an AI of 86% within the "very high" group. Potent inhibitions of lipid peroxidation of approximately 100 and 69% was also observed in T. heimii and T. mummiformis, respectively. Water extracts ranged from 34 to 49% and methanolic extracts varied from 20 to 32% on dry weight of mushroom fruiting body. Total phenolic compounds were higher in the water extracts (2-37 mg/g) than in methanolic extract (0.7-11.2 mg/g). The AOA measured in the water extract was better than that from the methanolic extract. HPLC analysis of phenolic acids in the two mushroom species, namely, T. heimii and T. mummiformis, displaying maximum AOA potential indicated a preponderance of tannic acid, gallic acid, protocatacheuic acid, and gentisic acid. Studies thus provide the precise antioxidant status of 23 indigenous species of mushrooms, which can serve as a useful database for the selection of mushrooms for the function of preparation of mushroom-based nutraceutics.

Study for anti-angiogenic activities of polysaccharides isolated from Antrodia cinnamomea in endothelial cells

The main purposes of this study were to investigate the regulation of polysaccharides isolated from A. cinnamomea on vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-induced cyclin D1 expression and down stream signaling pathway that may correlate with their anti-angiogenc effects in endothelial cells (ECs). Crude and fractionated polysaccharides (Fra-1 to Fra-4) of A. cinnamomea showed slightly toxicity to ECs as compared with their inhibition concentration on angiogenic-related gene expression. The crude extract and fractionated fractions, except for Fra-2, of A. cinnamomea polysaccharides significantly decreased VEGFR2 phosphorylation on tyrosine 1054/1059, cyclin D1 promotor activity, and protein expression induced by VEGF. Crude extract of A. cinnamomea polysaccharides inhibited the binding of VEGF to KDR/flk-1 in a dose-dependent manner. These results indicated that inhibition of VEGF interaction with VEGF receptor 2 is the mechanism serves A. cinnamomea as a protective mechanism composing the anti-angiogenesis function. Furthermore, A. cinnamomea polysaccharides also blocked VEGF-induced migration and capillary-like tube formation of ECs on Matrigel. Taken together, these results indicate that A. cinnamomea polysaccharides inhibit cyclin D1 expression through inhibition of VEGF receptor signaling, leading to the suppression of angiogenesis.

An extracellular carboxylesterase from the basidiomycete Pleurotus sapidus hydrolyses xanthophyll esters

An extracellular enzyme capable of efficient hydrolysis of xanthophyll esters was purified from culture supernatants of the basidiomycete Pleurotus sapidus. Under native conditions, the enzyme exhibited a molecular mass of 430 kDa, and SDS-PAGE data suggested a composition of eight identical subunits. Biochemical characterisation of the purified protein showed an isoelectric point of 4.5, and ideal hydrolysis conditions were observed at pH 5.8 and 40°C. Partial amino acid sequences were derived from N-terminal Edman degradation and from mass spectrometric ab initio sequencing of internal peptides. An 1861-bp cDNA containing an open reading frame of 1641 bp was cloned from a cDNA library that showed ca. 40% homology to Candida rugosa lipases. The P. sapidus carboxylesterase represents the first enzyme of the lipase/esterase family from a basidiomycetous fungus that has been characterised at the molecular level.