1
|
Shen Y, Fan J, Liu S, Tao L, Yang Q, Shen X. Exploring pathogenesis and biomarkers through establishment of a rat model of male infertility with liver depression and kidney deficiency. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303189. [PMID: 38768165 PMCID: PMC11104592 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To establish a rat model that accurately replicates the clinical characteristics of male infertility (MI) with Liver Depression and Kidney Deficiency (LD & KD) and investigate the pathogenesis. METHODS After subjecting the rats to chronic restraint stress (CRS) and adenine treatment, a series of tests were conducted, including ethological assessments, evaluations of reproductive characteristics, measurements of biochemical parameters, histopathological examinations, and analyses of urinary metabolites. Additionally, bioinformatics predictions were performed for comprehensive analysis. RESULTS Compared to the control, the model exhibited significant manifestations of MI with LD & KD, including reduced responsiveness, diminished frequency of capturing estrous female rats, and absence of mounting behavior. Additionally, the kidney coefficient increased markedly, while the coefficients of the testis and epididymis decreased significantly. Sperm counts and viabilities decreased notably, accompanied by an increase in sperm abnormalities. Dysregulation of reproductive hormone levels in the serum was observed, accompanied by an upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines expressions in the liver and kidney, as well as exacerbated oxidative stress in the penile corpus cavernosum and testis. The seminiferous tubules in the testis exhibited a loose arrangement, loss of germ cells, and infiltration of inflammatory cells. Furthermore, utilizing urinary metabolomics and bioinformatics analysis, 5 key biomarkers and 2 crucial targets most closely linked to MI were revealed. CONCLUSION The study successfully established a clinically relevant animal model of MI with LD & KD. It elucidates the pathogenesis of the condition, identifies key biomarkers and targets, and provides a robust scientific foundation for the prediction, diagnosis, and treatment of MI with LD & KD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Shen
- The State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
- The High Efficacy Application of Natural Medicinal Resources Engineering Center of Guizhou Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
- The Key Laboratory of Optimal Utilization of Natural Medicine Resources, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
- The National Engineering Research Center of Miao’s Medicines, Guizhou Yibai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yunyan District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Jian Fan
- The State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Shaobo Liu
- The State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
- The High Efficacy Application of Natural Medicinal Resources Engineering Center of Guizhou Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
- The Key Laboratory of Optimal Utilization of Natural Medicine Resources, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Ling Tao
- The State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
- The High Efficacy Application of Natural Medicinal Resources Engineering Center of Guizhou Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
- The Key Laboratory of Optimal Utilization of Natural Medicine Resources, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Qingbo Yang
- The National Engineering Research Center of Miao’s Medicines, Guizhou Yibai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yunyan District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Xiangchun Shen
- The State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
- The High Efficacy Application of Natural Medicinal Resources Engineering Center of Guizhou Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
- The Key Laboratory of Optimal Utilization of Natural Medicine Resources, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New District, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mushtaq S, Khan MIU, Khan MT, Lodhi MS, Wei DQ. Novel mutations in structural proteins of dengue virus genomes. J Infect Public Health 2023; 16:1971-1981. [PMID: 37879150 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2023.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genomic characterization of the dengue virus (DENV) is useful for understanding its molecular evolution, transmission, pathogenicity and infectivity. The DENV genomic RNA encodes three structural proteins, capsid (C) envelope (E) and membrane (M) proteins mediating viral entry and assembly during host infection. The current study aims to explore the DENV serotypes and mutations in the E and M proteins. METHODS Twenty-three samples of DENV-positive patients were processed and selected for whole genome sequencing (WGS) from the Punjab Province of Pakistan. RESULTS Among the 23 WGS, 19 samples showed numerous mutations (BioProject ID PRJNA943555). DENV1 and DENV2 are the most prevalent serotypes. A total of 179 mutations were detected in the E protein, in which K203E, T88A, I114L, and I293T are novel. The I270L, T272A, S273L, and T277A were found in the "kl" β-hairpin (aa 270-279). The M protein harbors 74 mutations, of which 24 were novel. Three prominent complementary regions in the prM and E protein complex formations include R6, E46, D47, D63, and D65 on 'pr' peptide, and E84, K64, and H244, K247 on E, remain conserved except R6C. To our knowledge, it is the first comprehensive study of mutations in structural proteins. CONCLUSION Genomic epidemiology is critical for analyzing emerging mutations and designing new policies therapeutic efforts for future outbreaks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saira Mushtaq
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, KM Defence Road, Postal code: 5881, Lahore, Pakistan.
| | - Malik Ihsan Ullah Khan
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, KM Defence Road, Postal code: 5881, Lahore, Pakistan.
| | - Muhammad Tahir Khan
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, KM Defence Road, Postal code: 5881, Lahore, Pakistan; Zhongjing Research and Industrialization Institute of Chinese Medicine, Zhongguancun Scientific Park, Meixi, Nanyang, Henan 473006, PR China.
| | - Madeeha Shahzad Lodhi
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, KM Defence Road, Postal code: 5881, Lahore, Pakistan.
| | - Dong Qing Wei
- Zhongjing Research and Industrialization Institute of Chinese Medicine, Zhongguancun Scientific Park, Meixi, Nanyang, Henan 473006, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Shanghai-Islamabad-Belgrade Joint Innovation Center on Antibacterial Resistances, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, PR China; Peng Cheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zong K, Li W, Xu Y, Zhao X, Cao R, Yan H, Li X. Design, Synthesis, Evaluation and Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Dengue Virus NS5-RdRp Inhibitors. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1625. [PMID: 38004490 PMCID: PMC10674617 DOI: 10.3390/ph16111625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is a major mosquito-borne human pathogen in tropical countries; however, there are currently no targeted antiviral treatments for DENV infection. Compounds 27 and 29 have been reported to be allosteric inhibitors of DENV RdRp with potent inhibitory effects. In this study, the structures of compounds 27 and 29 were optimized using computer-aided drug design (CADD) approaches. Nine novel compounds were synthesized based on rational considerations, including molecular docking scores, free energy of binding to receptor proteins, predicted Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity (ADMET) parameters, structural diversity, and feasibility of synthesis. Subsequently, the anti-DENV activity was assessed. In the cytopathic effect (CPE) assay conducted on BHK-21 cells using the DENV2 NGC strain, both SW-b and SW-d demonstrated comparable or superior activity against DENV2, with IC50 values of 3.58 ± 0.29 μM and 23.94 ± 1.00 μM, respectively, compared to that of compound 27 (IC50 = 19.67 ± 1.12 μM). Importantly, both SW-b and SW-d exhibited low cytotoxicity, with CC50 values of 24.65 μmol and 133.70 μmol, respectively, resulting in selectivity indices of 6.89 and 5.58, respectively. Furthermore, when compared to the positive control compound 3'-dATP (IC50 = 30.09 ± 8.26 μM), SW-b and SW-d displayed superior inhibitory activity in an enzyme inhibitory assay, with IC50 values of 11.54 ± 1.30 μM and 13.54 ± 0.32 μM, respectively. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations elucidated the mode of action of SW-b and SW-d, highlighting their ability to enhance π-π packing interactions between benzene rings and residue W795 in the S1 fragment, compared to compounds 27 and 29. Although the transacylsulphonamide fragment reduced the interaction between T794 and NH, it augmented the interaction between R729 and T794. In summary, our study underscores the potential of SW-b and SW-d as allosteric inhibitors targeting the DENV NS5 RdRp domain. However, further in vivo studies are warranted to assess their pharmacology and toxicity profiles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keli Zong
- Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Beijing 100124, China;
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; (W.L.); (Y.X.); (R.C.)
| | - Wei Li
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; (W.L.); (Y.X.); (R.C.)
| | - Yijie Xu
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; (W.L.); (Y.X.); (R.C.)
| | - Xu Zhao
- Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, 100 West Fourth Ring Road, Beijing 100071, China;
| | - Ruiyuan Cao
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; (W.L.); (Y.X.); (R.C.)
| | - Hong Yan
- Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Beijing 100124, China;
| | - Xingzhou Li
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; (W.L.); (Y.X.); (R.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rajapaksha SP, Nawagamuwage SU. Anticorrelated position fluctuation of lipids in forming membrane water pores: molecular dynamics simulations study with dengue virus capsid protein. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2022; 40:11395-11404. [PMID: 34343444 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.1958698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The traffic of molecules into or out of cells is regulated by many membrane-associated mechanisms. Membrane pores are considered as one of the major passage mechanisms, although molecular-level understanding of pore formation is still vague. The opening of a membrane pore depends on many factors, including the influence of some proteins. The ability of the cell-penetrating peptides and supercharged proteins to form membrane pores has been reported. We studied pore formation through dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) lipid bilayers by supercharged dengue virus capsid (C) protein. Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the formation of membrane pores by a combined effect of the C protein and the membrane electric field. Analyses of simulated trajectories showed highly correlated vertical position fluctuations between the Cα atom of the membrane-anchored arginine residues and the phosphorus atoms of the surrounding DPPC lipids. Certain regions of the bilayer were negatively correlated while the others were positively correlated with respect to the fluctuations of the Cα atom of the anchored arginine residues. When positively correlated lipids in one leaflet vertically aligned with the negatively correlated lipids in the other leaflet, a local anticorrelated region was generated by weakening the bilayer. The membrane pore was always formed close to this anticorrelated region. Once formed, the C protein followed the hydrated pathway provided by the water-filled pores to cross the membrane.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suneth P Rajapaksha
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| | - Sithara U Nawagamuwage
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Nalewaj M, Szabat M. Examples of Structural Motifs in Viral Genomes and Approaches for RNA Structure Characterization. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232415917. [PMID: 36555559 PMCID: PMC9784701 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232415917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationship between conserved structural motifs and their biological function in the virus replication cycle is the interest of many researchers around the world. RNA structure is closely related to RNA function. Therefore, technological progress in high-throughput approaches for RNA structure analysis and the development of new ones are very important. In this mini review, we discuss a few perspectives on the structural elements of viral genomes and some methods used for RNA structure prediction and characterization. Based on the recent literature, we describe several examples of studies concerning the viral genomes, especially severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and influenza A virus (IAV). Herein, we emphasize that a better understanding of viral genome architecture allows for the discovery of the structure-function relationship, and as a result, the discovery of new potential antiviral therapeutics.
Collapse
|
6
|
Abdullahi SH, Uzairu A, Shallangwa GA, Uba S, Umar AB. Structure Based Design of Some Novel 3-Methylquinoxaline Derivatives Through Molecular Docking and Pharmacokinetics Studies as Novel VEGFR-2 Inhibitors. CHEMISTRY AFRICA 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s42250-022-00485-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
7
|
Fatriansyah JF, Rizqillah RK, Yandi MY, Fadilah, Sahlan M. Molecular docking and dynamics studies on propolis sulabiroin-A as a potential inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2. JOURNAL OF KING SAUD UNIVERSITY. SCIENCE 2022; 34:101707. [PMID: 34803333 PMCID: PMC8591974 DOI: 10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Molecular docking and dynamics simulations were conducted to investigate the antiviral activity of Propolis Sulabiroin-A to inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 virus with quercetin, hesperidin, and remdesivir as control ligands. The parameters calculated were docking score and binding energy/molecular mechanics-generalized born surface area (MMGBSA), root mean square displacement (RMSD), and root mean square fluctuation (RMSF). Docking and MMGBSA scores showed that all the ligands demonstrate an excellent candidate as an inhibitor, and the order of both scores is hesperidin, remdesivir, quercetin, and sulabiroin-A. The molecular dynamics simulation showed that all the ligands are good candidates as inhibitors. Although the fluctuation of Sulabiroin-A is relatively high, it has less protein-ligand interaction time than other ligands. Overall, there is still a good possibility that sulabiroin-A can be used as an alternative inhibitor if a new structure of receptor SARS-CoV-2 is used.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jaka Fajar Fatriansyah
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Depok, Jawa Barat 16424, Indonesia
| | - Raihan Kenji Rizqillah
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Depok, Jawa Barat 16424, Indonesia
| | - Muhamad Yusup Yandi
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Depok, Jawa Barat 16424, Indonesia
| | - Fadilah
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia, Salemba Raya, Jakarta 10430, Indonesia
| | - Muhamad Sahlan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Depok, Jawa Barat 16424, Indonesia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Wakchaure PD, Ganguly B. Molecular level insights into the inhibition of gene expression by thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) analogs for TPP riboswitch: A well-tempered metadynamics simulations study. J Mol Graph Model 2021; 104:107849. [PMID: 33545607 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2021.107849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Riboswitches are metabolite sensing aptamer domains present in non-coding regions in RNA and act as gene-regulating elements. Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) riboswitch is evolved as a new target for developing antibiotics against many pathogenic bacteria. The earlier reports suggest that the modification of the pyrophosphate group in the ligand molecule can enhance gene expression. In this work, we have examined the binding affinity and efficacy of TPP and two recently reported ligands, CH2-TPP, and CF2-TPP, using Well-tempered metadynamics (WT-MtD) simulations. The experimental in vitro assays show that both TPP and CH2-TPP repress the gene expression to the same extent. The calculated binding energies correlate well with the experimental study and show the same trend of binding affinity of ligands for the TPP riboswitch. The root mean square fluctuation profiles suggest that the CH2-TPP and TPP trigger higher fluctuations in P1 and L3 region, and such fluctuations in the P1 region is involved in the gene regulation process. The metal ion mediated contact of TPP ligand with pyrophosphate binding helix is found to be critical in the gene regulation process. The simulation results corroborate the experimental observations that the role of conformational changes occurring in different riboswitch regions upon ligand binding is essential to repress the gene expression process. This work sheds light on the subtle change in the ligand structure that can induce a more considerable impact on binding affinity and efficacy of ligands with riboswitch.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Padmaja D Wakchaure
- Computation and Simulation Unit (Analytical Discipline and Centralized Instrument Facility), CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, 364002, Gujarat, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201 002, India
| | - Bishwajit Ganguly
- Computation and Simulation Unit (Analytical Discipline and Centralized Instrument Facility), CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, 364002, Gujarat, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201 002, India.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Shanmugam A, Muralidharan N, Velmurugan D, Gromiha MM. Therapeutic Targets and Computational Approaches on Drug Development for COVID-19. Curr Top Med Chem 2020; 20:2210-2220. [DOI: 10.2174/1568026620666200710105507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
World Health Organization declared coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by SARS
coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) as pandemic. Its outbreak started in China in Dec 2019 and rapidly spread
all over the world. SARS-CoV-2 has infected more than 800,000 people and caused about 35,000 deaths
so far, moreover, no approved drugs are available to treat COVID-19. Several investigations have been
carried out to identify potent drugs for COVID-19 based on drug repurposing, potential novel compounds
from ligand libraries, natural products, short peptides, and RNAseq analysis. This review is focused
on three different aspects; (i) targets for drug design (ii) computational methods to identify lead
compounds and (iii) drugs for COVID-19. It also covers the latest literature on various hit molecules
proposed by computational methods and experimental techniques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anusuya Shanmugam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Vinayaka Mission’s KirupanandaVariyar Engineering College, Vinayaka Mission’s Research Foundation (Deemed to be University), Salem – 636308, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Nisha Muralidharan
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai – 600036, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Devadasan Velmurugan
- Centre of Advanced Study in Crystallography and Biophysics, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai - 600025, India
| | - M. Michael Gromiha
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai – 600036, Tamil Nadu, India
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Shanmugam A, Ramakrishnan C, Velmurugan D, Gromiha MM. Identification of Potential Inhibitors for Targets Involved in Dengue Fever. Curr Top Med Chem 2020; 20:1742-1760. [PMID: 32552652 DOI: 10.2174/1568026620666200618123026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Lethality due to dengue infection is a global threat. Nearly 400 million people are affected every year, which approximately costs 500 million dollars for surveillance and vector control itself. Many investigations on the structure-function relationship of proteins expressed by the dengue virus are being made for more than a decade and had come up with many reports on small molecule drug discovery. In this review, we present a detailed note on viral proteins and their functions as well as the inhibitors discovered/designed so far using experimental and computational methods. Further, the phytoconstituents from medicinal plants, specifically the extract of the papaya leaves, neem and bael, which combat dengue infection via dengue protease, helicase, methyl transferase and polymerase are summarized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anusuya Shanmugam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Vinayaka Mission's Kirupananda Variyar Engineering College, Vinayaka Mission's Research Foundation (Deemed to be University), Salem - 636308, India
| | - Chandrasekaran Ramakrishnan
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Madras, Chennai - 600036, India
| | - Devadasan Velmurugan
- Centre of Advanced Study in Crystallography and Biophysics, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai - 600025, India
| | - M Michael Gromiha
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Madras, Chennai - 600036, India
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kanakaveti V, Shanmugam A, Ramakrishnan C, Anoosha P, Sakthivel R, Rayala SK, Gromiha MM. Computational approaches for identifying potential inhibitors on targeting protein interactions in drug discovery. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2020; 121:25-47. [PMID: 32312424 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2019.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In the era of big data, the interplay of artificial and human intelligence is the demanding job to address the concerns involving exchange of decisions between both sides. Drug discovery is one of the key sources of the big data, which involves synergy among various computational methods to achieve a clinical success. Rightful acquisition, mining and analysis of the data related to ligand and targets are crucial to accomplish reliable outcomes in the entire process. Novel designing and screening tactics are necessary to substantiate a potent and efficient lead compounds. Such methods are emphasized and portrayed in the current review targeting protein-ligand and protein-protein interactions involved in various diseases with potential applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vishnupriya Kanakaveti
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Anusuya Shanmugam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Vinayaka Mission's Kirupananda Variyar Engineering College, Vinayaka Mission's Research Foundation (Deemed to be University), Salem, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - C Ramakrishnan
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - P Anoosha
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology and Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - R Sakthivel
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - S K Rayala
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - M Michael Gromiha
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Advanced Computational Drug Discovery Unit (ACDD), Tokyo Tech World Research Hub Initiative (WRHI), Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Chesnut M, Muñoz LS, Harris G, Freeman D, Gama L, Pardo CA, Pamies D. In vitro and in silico Models to Study Mosquito-Borne Flavivirus Neuropathogenesis, Prevention, and Treatment. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:223. [PMID: 31338335 PMCID: PMC6629778 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mosquito-borne flaviviruses can cause disease in the nervous system, resulting in a significant burden of morbidity and mortality. Disease models are necessary to understand neuropathogenesis and identify potential therapeutics and vaccines. Non-human primates have been used extensively but present major challenges. Advances have also been made toward the development of humanized mouse models, but these models still do not fully represent human pathophysiology. Recent developments in stem cell technology and cell culture techniques have allowed the development of more physiologically relevant human cell-based models. In silico modeling has also allowed researchers to identify and predict transmission patterns and discover potential vaccine and therapeutic candidates. This review summarizes the research on in vitro and in silico models used to study three mosquito-borne flaviviruses that cause neurological disease in humans: West Nile, Dengue, and Zika. We also propose a roadmap for 21st century research on mosquito-borne flavivirus neuropathogenesis, prevention, and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan Chesnut
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Laura S. Muñoz
- Division of Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States,Neuroviruses Emerging in the Americas Study, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Georgina Harris
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Dana Freeman
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Lucio Gama
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States,Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Carlos A. Pardo
- Division of Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States,Neuroviruses Emerging in the Americas Study, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David Pamies
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States,Department of Physiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland,*Correspondence: David Pamies
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Drug repositioning for dengue haemorrhagic fever by integrating multiple omics analyses. Sci Rep 2019; 9:523. [PMID: 30679503 PMCID: PMC6346040 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36636-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
To detect drug candidates for dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF), we employed a computational drug repositioning method to perform an integrated multiple omics analysis based on transcriptomic, proteomic, and interactomic data. We identified 3,892 significant genes, 389 proteins, and 221 human proteins by transcriptomic analysis, proteomic analysis, and human–dengue virus protein–protein interactions, respectively. The drug candidates were selected using gene expression profiles for inverse drug–disease relationships compared with DHF patients and healthy controls as well as interactomic relationships between the signature proteins and chemical compounds. Integrating the results of the multiple omics analysis, we identified eight candidates for drug repositioning to treat DHF that targeted five proteins (ACTG1, CALR, ERC1, HSPA5, SYNE2) involved in human–dengue virus protein–protein interactions, and the signature proteins in the proteomic analysis mapped to significant pathways. Interestingly, five of these drug candidates, valparoic acid, sirolimus, resveratrol, vorinostat, and Y-27632, have been reported previously as effective treatments for flavivirus-induced diseases. The computational approach using multiple omics data for drug repositioning described in this study can be used effectively to identify novel drug candidates.
Collapse
|
14
|
Wu YH, Tseng CK, Wu HC, Wei CK, Lin CK, Chen IS, Chang HS, Lee JC. Avocado (Persea americana) fruit extract (2R,4R)-1,2,4-trihydroxyheptadec-16-yne inhibits dengue virus replication via upregulation of NF-κB-dependent induction of antiviral interferon responses. Sci Rep 2019; 9:423. [PMID: 30674997 PMCID: PMC6344542 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36714-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) caused millions of infections around the world annually. Co-infection with different serotypes of DENV is associated with dengue hemorrhagic shock syndrome, leading to an estimate of 50% death rate. No approved therapies are currently available for the treatment of DENV infection. Hence, novel anti-DENV agents are urgently needed for medical therapy. Here we demonstrated that a natural product (2 R,4 R)-1,2,4-trihydroxyheptadec-16-yne (THHY), extracted from avocado (Persea americana) fruit, can inhibit DENV-2 replication in a concentration-dependent manner and efficiently suppresses replication of all DENV serotypes (1–4). We further reveal that the NF-κB-mediated interferon antiviral response contributes to the inhibitory effect of THHY on DENV replication. Using a DENV-infected ICR suckling mouse model, we found that THHY treatment caused an increased survival rate among mice infected with DENV. Collectively, these findings support THHY as a potential agent to control DENV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Hsuan Wu
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Kai Tseng
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ho-Cheng Wu
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Ku Wei
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Kuang Lin
- Doctoral Degree Program in Marine Biotechnology, College of Marine Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ih-Sheng Chen
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Hsun-Shuo Chang
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Graduate Institute of Natural Products, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Jin-Ching Lee
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Graduate Institute of Natural Products, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Research Center for Natural Products and Drug Development, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Dwivedi VD, Tripathi IP, Tripathi RC, Bharadwaj S, Mishra SK. Genomics, proteomics and evolution of dengue virus. Brief Funct Genomics 2018; 16:217-227. [PMID: 28073742 DOI: 10.1093/bfgp/elw040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The genome of a pathogenic organism possesses a specific order of nucleotides that contains not only information about the synthesis and expression of proteomes, which are required for its growth and survival, but also about its evolution. Inhibition of any particular protein, which is required for the survival of that pathogenic organism, can be used as a potential therapeutic target for the development of effective drugs to treat its infections. In this review, the genomics, proteomics and evolution of dengue virus have been discussed, which will be helpful in better understanding of its origin, growth, survival and evolution, and may contribute toward development of new efficient anti-dengue drugs.
Collapse
|
16
|
Anusuya S, Gromiha MM. Structural basis of flavonoids as dengue polymerase inhibitors: insights from QSAR and docking studies. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2017; 37:104-115. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2017.1419146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shanmugam Anusuya
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Chennai 600036, Tamil Nadu, India
- School of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode 673601, Kerala, India
| | - M. Michael Gromiha
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Chennai 600036, Tamil Nadu, India
- Advanced Computational Drug Discovery Unit (ACDD), Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsutacho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Kanagawa, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Ramharack P, Soliman MES. Zika virus NS5 protein potential inhibitors: an enhanced in silico approach in drug discovery. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2017; 36:1118-1133. [PMID: 28351337 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2017.1313175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The re-emerging Zika virus (ZIKV) is an arthropod-borne virus that has been described to have explosive potential as a worldwide pandemic. The initial transmission of the virus was through a mosquito vector, however, evolving modes of transmission has allowed the spread of the disease over continents. The virus has already been linked to irreversible chronic central nervous system conditions. The concerns of the scientific and clinical community are the consequences of Zika viral mutations, thus suggesting the urgent need for viral inhibitors. There have been large strides in vaccine development against the virus but there are still no FDA approved drugs available. Rapid rational drug design and discovery research is fundamental in the production of potent inhibitors against the virus that will not just mask the virus, but destroy it completely. In silico drug design allows for this prompt screening of potential leads, thus decreasing the consumption of precious time and resources. This study demonstrates an optimized and proven screening technique in the discovery of two potential small molecule inhibitors of ZIKV Methyltransferase and RNA dependent RNA polymerase. This in silico 'per-residue energy decomposition pharmacophore' virtual screening approach will be critical in aiding scientists in the discovery of not only effective inhibitors of Zika viral targets, but also a wide range of anti-viral agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pritika Ramharack
- a Molecular Modeling and Drug Design Research Group , School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal , Westville Campus, Durban 4001 , South Africa
| | - Mahmoud E S Soliman
- a Molecular Modeling and Drug Design Research Group , School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal , Westville Campus, Durban 4001 , South Africa.,b Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of KwaZulu-Natal , Westville Campus, Durban 4001 , South Africa.,c Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry , Zagazig University , Zagazig , Egypt.,d College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, FAMU , Tallahassee , FL 32307 , USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Godoy AS, Lima GMA, Oliveira KIZ, Torres NU, Maluf FV, Guido RVC, Oliva G. Crystal structure of Zika virus NS5 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14764. [PMID: 28345596 PMCID: PMC5378953 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The current Zika virus (ZIKV) outbreak became a global health threat of complex epidemiology and devastating neurological impacts, therefore requiring urgent efforts towards the development of novel efficacious and safe antiviral drugs. Due to its central role in RNA viral replication, the non-structural protein 5 (NS5) RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase (RdRp) is a prime target for drug discovery. Here we describe the crystal structure of the recombinant ZIKV NS5 RdRp domain at 1.9 Å resolution as a platform for structure-based drug design strategy. The overall structure is similar to other flaviviral homologues. However, the priming loop target site, which is suitable for non-nucleoside polymerase inhibitor design, shows significant differences in comparison with the dengue virus structures, including a tighter pocket and a modified local charge distribution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andre S Godoy
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Av. Joao Dagnone, 1100-Jardim Santa Angelina, São Carlos 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Gustavo M A Lima
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Av. Joao Dagnone, 1100-Jardim Santa Angelina, São Carlos 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Ketllyn I Z Oliveira
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Av. Joao Dagnone, 1100-Jardim Santa Angelina, São Carlos 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Naiara U Torres
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Av. Joao Dagnone, 1100-Jardim Santa Angelina, São Carlos 13563-120, Brazil.,Cellco Biotec, R. Alberto Lanzoni, 993-Parque Santa Felicia, São Carlos 13562-390, Brazil
| | - Fernando V Maluf
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Av. Joao Dagnone, 1100-Jardim Santa Angelina, São Carlos 13563-120, Brazil.,Cellco Biotec, R. Alberto Lanzoni, 993-Parque Santa Felicia, São Carlos 13562-390, Brazil
| | - Rafael V C Guido
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Av. Joao Dagnone, 1100-Jardim Santa Angelina, São Carlos 13563-120, Brazil
| | - Glaucius Oliva
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Av. Joao Dagnone, 1100-Jardim Santa Angelina, São Carlos 13563-120, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Anusuya S, Gromiha MM. Quercetin derivatives as non-nucleoside inhibitors for dengue polymerase: molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and binding free energy calculation. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2016; 35:2895-2909. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2016.1234416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shanmugam Anusuya
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, Tamilnadu, India
| | - M. Michael Gromiha
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, Tamilnadu, India
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Fajardo-Sánchez E, Galiano V, Villalaín J. Molecular dynamics study of the membrane interaction of a membranotropic dengue virus C protein-derived peptide. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2016; 35:1283-1294. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2016.1179595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Fajardo-Sánchez
- Physics and Computer Architecture Department Universitas “Miguel Hernández”, E-03202 Elche-Alicante, Spain
| | - Vicente Galiano
- Physics and Computer Architecture Department Universitas “Miguel Hernández”, E-03202 Elche-Alicante, Spain
| | - José Villalaín
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Institute, Universitas “Miguel Hernández”, E-03202 Elche-Alicante, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Yokokawa F, Nilar S, Noble CG, Lim SP, Rao R, Tania S, Wang G, Lee G, Hunziker J, Karuna R, Manjunatha U, Shi PY, Smith PW. Discovery of Potent Non-Nucleoside Inhibitors of Dengue Viral RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase from a Fragment Hit Using Structure-Based Drug Design. J Med Chem 2016; 59:3935-52. [PMID: 26984786 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b00143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The discovery and optimization of non-nucleoside dengue viral RNA-dependent-RNA polymerase (RdRp) inhibitors are described. An X-ray-based fragment screen of Novartis' fragment collection resulted in the identification of a biphenyl acetic acid fragment 3, which bound in the palm subdomain of RdRp. Subsequent optimization of the fragment hit 3, relying on structure-based design, resulted in a >1000-fold improvement in potency in vitro and acquired antidengue activity against all four serotypes with low micromolar EC50 in cell-based assays. The lead candidate 27 interacts with a novel binding pocket in the palm subdomain of the RdRp and exerts a promising activity against all clinically relevant dengue serotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fumiaki Yokokawa
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Shahul Nilar
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Christian G Noble
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Siew Pheng Lim
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Ranga Rao
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Stefani Tania
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Gang Wang
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Gladys Lee
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Jürg Hunziker
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Ratna Karuna
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Ujjini Manjunatha
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| | - Pei-Yong Shi
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Department of Phamarcology & Toxicology, Sealy Center for Structural Biology & Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Paul W Smith
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases , 10 Biopolis Road, no. 05-01, Chromos, Singapore 138670, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|