Dynamic Aspects of the Immunoglobulin Structure

Effects of high-temperature, short-time pasteurization on milk and whey during commercial whey protein concentrate production

Two pasteurization steps are often used in the preparation of whey protein concentrate (WPC) before evaporation into a dry product. The Pasteurized Milk Ordinance in the United States requires that raw bovine milk be pasteurized using a process that meets minimum heat treatment requirements to achieve reductions in pertinent microorganisms. In addition, WPC produced from USDA-approved plants must comply with CFR subpart B §58.809, which dictates that all fluid whey used in the manufacture of dry whey products shall be pasteurized before being condensed. These heat treatments are effective at inactivating the most thermally resistant bacterium, such as Coxiella burnetii; however, they can also alter milk proteins, inducing denaturation, aggregation, and reduced bioactivity. Though the impact of thermal treatments on whey proteins has been examined, the specific influence of 2 HTST pasteurization steps on the retention of proteins in WPC remains unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effect of commercial-scale HTST pasteurization of both raw milk and the resulting sweet whey on the products' overall protein profile. We analyzed 3 distinct batches of raw milk (RM) and the corresponding pasteurized milk (PM), resulting whey (RW), and pasteurized whey (PW) produced at commercial scale. Assessments of denaturation were conducted through solubility testing at pH 4.6 and hydrophobicity evaluation via anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid assay. Additionally, ELISA, PAGE, and liquid chromatography tandem MS (LC-MS/MS) were employed to compare the retention of key bioactive proteins before and after each HTST pasteurization step. The percentage of soluble whey protein decreased from RM to PM and from RW to PW, but no significant differences were observed via hydrophobicity assay. The ELISA revealed a significant reduction in key bioactive proteins, such as lactoferrin, IgA, and IgM, but not IgG, after HTST pasteurization of RM and RW. The PAGE and LC-MS/MS results revealed a significant decrease in the retention of lactoferrin and key milk fat globular membrane proteins, such as xanthine dehydrogenase oxidase/xanthine oxidase, lactadherin, and fatty acid binding protein. Additionally, xanthine oxidase activity was significantly reduced after HTST pasteurization of milk and whey. This research helps to identify the limitations of the current processing techniques used in the dairy industry and could lead to innovation in improving the retention of bioactive proteins.

Bispecific FpFs: a versatile tool for preclinical antibody development

We previously described FpFs 1̲ (Fab-PEG-Fab) as binding mimetics of IgGs. FpFs are prepared with di(bis-sulfone) conjugation reagents 3̲ that undergo disulfide rebridging conjugation with the accessible disulfide of each Fab (Scheme 1). We have now prepared bispecific FpFs 2̲ (bsFpF and Fab1-PEG-Fab2) as potential bispecific antibody mimetics with the intent that bsFpFs could be used in preclinical antibody development since sourcing bispecific antibodies may be challenging during preclinical research. The di(bis-sulfone) reagent 3̲ was first used to prepare a bsFpF 2̲ by the sequential conjugation of a first Fab and then a second Fab to another target (Scheme 2). Seeking to improve bsFpF synthesis, the asymmetric conjugation reagent, bis-sulfone bis-sulfide 1̲6̲, with different thiol conjugation reactivities at each terminus (Scheme 4) was examined and the bsFpFs appeared to be formed at similar conversion to the di(bis-sulfone) reagent 3̲. To explore the advantages of using common intermediates in the preparation of bsFpF families, we investigated bsFpF synthesis with a protein conjugation-ligation approach (Scheme 5). Reagents with a bis-sulfone moiety for conjugation on one PEG terminus and a ligation moiety on the other terminus were examined. Bis-sulfone PEG trans-cyclooctene (TCO) 2̲8̲ and bis-sulfone PEG tetrazine (Tz) 3̲0̲ were used to prepare several bsFpFs targeting various therapeutic targets (TNF-α, IL6R, IL17, and VEGF) and tissue affinity targets (hyaluronic acid and collagen II). Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) binding studies indicated that there was little difference between the dissociation rate constant (k d) for the unmodified Fab, mono-conjugated PEG-Fab and the corresponding Fab in a bsFpF. The Fab association rate (k a) in the bsFpF was slower than for PEG-Fab, which may be because of mass differences that influence SPR results. These observations suggest that each Fab will bind to its target independently of the other Fab and that bsFpF binding profiles can be estimated using the corresponding PEG-Fab conjugates.

Is systemic lupus erythematosus linked to Immunoglobulin G4 Autoantibodies?

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disorder characterized by a hyperactive immune system with multiple abnormalities in B-cell proliferation, antibody production, T-cell regulation, and immune complex (IC) formation. In humans, Immunoglobulin (Ig) G is found in four subclasses. IgG1-IgG4, which are distinguished by both structural and biological differences. Fab-arm Exchange (FAE), specific biases in the IgG4 response repertoire, and a decreased capacity to induce effector functions mediated by interactions in the fragment crystallizable (Fc) region are just a few of the distinctive characteristics of IgG4. The recent finding of the presence of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) and antinuclear antibody (ANA)-IgG4 has raised attention to this IgG subclass and its possible role in SLE. IgG4 was previously believed to just have anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting immune responses, but recent studies have shown that these antibodies can also play a role in the onset and development of some clinical disorders. To consider the clinical effects of IgG4 presence, it is necessary to discuss its characteristics, which could underlie the potential role it can play in SLE. Therefore, this study aimed to comprehensively review the role of IgG4 in SLE to elucidate the collective incidence of high IgG4 levels reported in some SLE patients.

Evolution of immunogenetic components encoding ultralong CDR H3

The genomes of most vertebrates contain many V, D, and J gene segments within their Ig loci to construct highly variable CDR3 sequences through combinatorial diversity. This nucleotide variability translates into an antibody population containing extensive paratope diversity. Cattle have relatively few functional VDJ gene segments, requiring innovative approaches for generating diversity like the use of ultralong-encoding IGHV and IGHD gene segments that yield dramatically elongated CDR H3. Unique knob and stalk microdomains create protracted paratopes, where the antigen-binding knob sits atop a long stalk, allowing the antibody to bind both surface and recessed antigen epitopes. We examined genomes of twelve species of Bovidae to determine when ultralong-encoding IGHV and IGHD gene segments evolved. We located the 8-bp duplication encoding the unique TTVHQ motif in ultralong IGHV segments in six Bovid species (cattle, zebu, wild yak, domestic yak, American bison, and domestic gayal), but we did not find evidence of the duplication in species beyond the Bos and Bison genera. Additionally, we analyzed mRNA from bison spleen and identified a rich repertoire of expressed ultralong CDR H3 antibody mRNA, suggesting that bison use ultralong IGHV transcripts in their host defense. We found ultralong-encoding IGHD gene segments in all the same species except domestic yak, but again not beyond the Bos and Bison clade. Thus, the duplication event leading to this ultralong-encoding IGHV gene segment and the emergence of the ultralong-encoding IGHD gene segment appears to have evolved in a common ancestor of the Bos and Bison genera 5-10 million years ago.

Nano Differential Scanning Fluorimetry-Based Thermal Stability Screening and Optimal Buffer Selection for Immunoglobulin G

Nano differential scanning fluorimetry (nanoDSF) is a high-throughput protein stability screening technique that simultaneously monitors protein unfolding and aggregation properties. The thermal stability of immunoglobulin G (IgG) was investigated in three different buffers (sodium acetate, sodium citrate, and sodium phosphate) ranging from pH 4 to 8. In all three buffers, the midpoint temperature of thermal unfolding (T_m) showed a tendency to increase as the pH increased, but the aggregation propensity was different depending on the buffer species. The best stability against aggregation was obtained in the sodium acetate buffers below pH 4.6. On the other hand, IgG in the sodium citrate buffer had higher aggregation and viscosity than in the sodium acetate buffer at the same pH. Difference of aggregation between acetate and citrate buffers at the same pH could be explained by a protein-protein interaction study, performed with dynamic light scattering, which suggested that intermolecular interaction is attractive in citrate buffer but repulsive in acetate buffer. In conclusion, this study indicates that the sodium acetate buffer at pH 4.6 is suitable for IgG formulation, and the nanoDSF method is a powerful tool for thermal stability screening and optimal buffer selection in antibody formulations.

Lycopene improves maternal reproductive performance by modulating milk composition and placental antioxidative and immune status

Placental health and milk quality are important for maternal reproductive performance during pregnancy and lactation. Lycopene plays an important role in antioxidation, anti-inflammation and regulating lipid metabolism. The goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of dietary lycopene supplementation in the pig model on reproductive performance, placental health and milk composition during maternal gestation and lactation. In the present study, the litter size of live piglets was increased and the litter size of dead piglets was decreased by lycopene supplementation of the diet of sows. The litter weight at birth and weaning were increased in the lycopene group. Through placental proteomics, we enriched differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), gene ontology (GO) terms, and Kyoto encyclopedia of proteins and genomes (KEGG) pathways involved in immunity, anti-inflammation, antioxidants, and lipid metabolism and transport. Furthermore, in terms of placental health, we analyzed the levels of related enzymes, metabolites and mRNA expression in the placenta. Lycopene was shown to reduce mRNA expression and the levels of placental inflammatory factors, increase the content of immunoglobulin, improve the antioxidant capacity, and improve lipid metabolism and lipid transport in the placenta. In terms of sow milk composition, lycopene increased the levels of immunoglobulins in colostrum and lactose in colostrum and milk. Overall, the results of the present study demonstrate that dietary lycopene supplementation of sows during gestation and lactation improves the reproductive performance to a certain extent; this may be due to lycopene improving the placental health and milk composition of sows.

Acute Kidney Injury in Monoclonal Gammopathies

Monoclonal gammopathies (MG) encompass a variety of disorders related to clonal expansion and/or malignant transformation of B lymphocytes. Deposition of free immunoglobulin (Ig) components (light or heavy chains, LC/HC) within the kidney during MG may result over time in multiple types and degrees of injury, including acute kidney injury (AKI). AKI is generally a consequence of tubular obstruction by luminal aggregates of LC, a pattern known as “cast nephropathy”. Monoclonal Ig LC can also be found as intracellular crystals in glomerular podocytes or proximal tubular cells. Proliferative glomerulonephritis with monoclonal Ig deposits is another, less frequent form of kidney injury with a sizable impact on renal function. Hypercalcemia (in turn related to bone reabsorption triggered by proliferating plasmacytoid B cells) may lead to AKI via functional mechanisms. Pharmacologic treatment of MG may also result in additional renal injury due to local toxicity or the tumor lysis syndrome. The present review focuses on AKI complicating MG, evaluating predictors, risk factors, mechanisms of damage, prognosis, and options for treatment.

Novel mechanism of hepatobiliary system damage and immunoglobulin G4 elevation caused by Clonorchis sinensis infection

Clonorchis sinensis infection is still a major public health problem. It is estimated that more than 15 million people worldwide are infected, especially in Northeast China, Taiwan, South Korea, and North Vietnam. The detection of Clonorchis sinensis eggs in feces and bile is still the only gold standard for the diagnosis of Clonorchis sinensis infection, and new detection methods are needed to improve the detection rate. After Clonorchis sinensis invades the human body, it mainly parasitizes the hepatobiliary tract. Therefore, it is closely related to hepatobiliary diseases such as cholangitis, bile duct stones, liver fibrosis, and cholangiocarcinoma. The increase in immunoglobulin G4 (IgG4) caused by Clonorchis sinensis infection is rare and there are few reports about the relevant mechanism. It may be related to the inflammatory factors interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, and IL-13 produced by human phagocytes, T cells, B cells, and other immune cells in the process of resisting the invasion of Clonorchis sinensis. However, this finding still needs further clarification and confirmation. This article reviews the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, serology, imaging, pathogenic mechanism, and control measures of Clonorchis sinensis infection to help establish the diagnostic process for Clonorchis sinensis. We report novel mechanisms of IgG4 elevation due to Clonorchis sinensis infection to provide more experience and a theoretical basis for clinical diagnosis and treatment of this infection.

Identification of Linear Peptide Immunogens with Verified Broad-spectrum Immunogenicity from the Conserved Regions within the Hemagglutinin Stem Domain of H1N1 Influenza Virus

Background: Influenza A viruses (IAVs) induce acute respiratory disease and cause severe epidemics and pandemics. Since IAVs exhibit antigenic variation and genome reassortment, the development of broad-spectrum influenza vaccines is crucial. The stem of the hemagglutinin (HA) is highly conserved across IAV strains and thus has been explored in broad-spectrum influenza vaccine studies. The present study aimed to identify viral epitopes capable of eliciting effective host immune responses, which can be explored for the development of broad-spectrum non-strain specific prophylactic options against IAV.Methods: In this study, a series of conserved linear sequences from the HA stem of IAV (H1N1) was recognized by sequence alignment and B/T-cell epitope prediction after being chemically coupled to the Keyhole Limpet Hemocyanin (KLH) protein. The predicted linear epitopes were identified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) after animal immunization and then fused with ferritin carriers.Results: Three predicted linear epitopes with relatively strong immunogenicity, P3, P6 and P8 were fused with ferritin carriers P3F, P6F and P8F, respectively to further improve their immunogenicity. Antibody titre of the sera of mice immunized with the recombinant immunogens revealed the elicitation of specific antibody-binding activities by the identified sequences. While hemagglutinin-inhibition activities were not detected in the antisera, neutralizing antibodies against the H1 and H3 virus subtypes were detected by the microneutralization assay.Conclusion: The linear epitopes fused with ferritin identified in this study can lay the foundation for future advancements in development of broad-spectrum subunit vaccine against IAV (H1N1), and give rise to the potential future applicability of ferritin-based antigen delivery nanoplatforms.

Monoclonal Gammopathies of Renal Significance: Renal Biopsy and Beyond

Monoclonal Gammopathies of Renal Significance (MGRS) are a rather heterogeneous group of renal disorders caused by a circulating monoclonal (MC) immunoglobulin (Ig) component, often in the absence of multiple myeloma (MM) or another clinically relevant lymphoproliferative disorder. Nevertheless, substantial kidney damage could occur, despite the "benign" features of the bone-marrow biopsy. One example is renal amyloidosis, often linked to a small clone of plasma cells, without the invasive features of MM. However, patients with amyloidosis may present with a nephrotic syndrome and renal failure, eventually leading to end-stage kidney disease. At the same time, other organs, such as the heart and the liver, may be severely damaged by Ig light chains or amyloid deposits, occasionally resulting in fatal arrhythmias and/or organ failure. Acute kidney injury (AKI) may as well result from massive excretion of MC proteins, with deposition disease in glomeruli or renal tubules, not rarely obstructed by luminal aggregates, or "casts". Proliferative glomerulonephritis with monoclonal Ig deposits is another, less frequent clinical presentation of an MGRS. The present review deals with the implications of MGRS for renal function and prognosis, and the potential of tools, such as the renal biopsy, for assessing clinical risk and guiding therapy of the underlying condition.

Immunological Role of IgG Subclasses

The loss of tolerance to self-antigens is the unequivocal "red line" of autoimmunity: both development of autoreactive T and B cells and production of polyclonal autoantibodies represent seminal keys to the pathogenesis of protean autoimmune diseases. Most of these autoantibodies are immunoglobulins G (IgG), functionally distinguished in four subclasses named IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4, due to structural differences in the hinge and heavy chain constant regions. Different studies analyzed serum levels of IgG subclasses in the course of different disorders, showing that they might have a pathogenic role by regulating interactions among immunoglobulins, Fc-gamma receptors, and complement. To date, the mechanisms promoting different IgG subclasses distribution during the natural history of most autoimmune diseases remain somewhat unclear. Evidence from the medical literature shows that the serum IgG profile is peculiar for many autoimmune diseases, suggesting that different subclasses could be specific for the underlying driving autoantigens. A better knowledge of IgG subsets may probably help to elucidate their pathological task, but also to define their relevance for diagnostic purposes, patients' personalized management, and prognosis assessment.