Cannabis withdrawal in patients with and without opioid dependence

The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: current insights

The cannabis withdrawal syndrome (CWS) is a criterion of cannabis use disorders (CUDs) (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fifth Edition) and cannabis dependence (International Classification of Diseases [ICD]-10). Several lines of evidence from animal and human studies indicate that cessation from long-term and regular cannabis use precipitates a specific withdrawal syndrome with mainly mood and behavioral symptoms of light to moderate intensity, which can usually be treated in an outpatient setting. Regular cannabis intake is related to a desensitization and downregulation of human brain cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptors. This starts to reverse within the first 2 days of abstinence and the receptors return to normal functioning within 4 weeks of abstinence, which could constitute a neurobiological time frame for the duration of CWS, not taking into account cellular and synaptic long-term neuroplasticity elicited by long-term cannabis use before cessation, for example, being possibly responsible for cannabis craving. The CWS severity is dependent on the amount of cannabis used pre-cessation, gender, and heritable and several environmental factors. Therefore, naturalistic severity of CWS highly varies. Women reported a stronger CWS than men including physical symptoms, such as nausea and stomach pain. Comorbidity with mental or somatic disorders, severe CUD, and low social functioning may require an inpatient treatment (preferably qualified detox) and post-acute rehabilitation. There are promising results with gabapentin and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol analogs in the treatment of CWS. Mirtazapine can be beneficial to treat CWS insomnia. According to small studies, venlafaxine can worsen the CWS, whereas other antidepressants, atomoxetine, lithium, buspirone, and divalproex had no relevant effect. Certainly, further research is required with respect to the impact of the CWS treatment setting on long-term CUD prognosis and with respect to psychopharmacological or behavioral approaches, such as aerobic exercise therapy or psychoeducation, in the treatment of CWS. The up-to-date ICD-11 Beta Draft is recommended to be expanded by physical CWS symptoms, the specification of CWS intensity and duration as well as gender effects.

Marijuana for Glaucoma: A Recipe for Disaster or Treatment?

Marijuana has been shown to lower intraocular pressure (IOP) but with limited duration of action and numerous adverse effects. Use of marijuana to lower IOP as a means of glaucoma treatment would require frequent use throughout the day, leading to significant adverse effects, possible progression toward Cannabis Use Disorder (CUD), and/or withdrawal symptoms. The treatment of glaucoma based on the cannabis plant or drugs based on the cannabinoid molecule should be considered carefully before being prescribed. Considerations should include the adverse physical and psychological adverse effects, including substance abuse. Currently, the deleterious effects of marijuana outweigh the benefits of its IOP-lowering capacity in most glaucoma patients. Under extremely rare circumstances, a few categories of glaucoma patients may be potential candidates for treatment with medical marijuana. Further studies on alternate routes and more focused means of cannabinoid molecule delivery to the eye for glaucoma treatment are needed.

Predictors of Psychiatric Hospitalization in Ex-Prisoners With Substance Use Problems

This study analyzed predictors of psychiatric hospitalization in ex-prisoners with substance use problems ( N = 4,081) assessed with the Addiction Severity Index and followed post-release for hospitalizations with psychiatric diagnoses (including suicide attempts). Thirty-four percent were hospitalized, and in Cox regression, several substance-related variables predicted hospitalization, including use of heroin, sedatives, and polysubstance. A secondary analysis, with a psychiatric non-substance focus, excluded hospitalizations involving only substance-related disorders or only a personality disorder in addition to a substance-related disorder. With this definition, 10% were hospitalized, and significant baseline predictors were previous psychiatric hospitalization (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.83), previous suicide attempt (HR = 1.91), depression (HR = 1.33), anxiety (HR = 1.37), sedative use (HR = 1.46), and, negatively, amphetamine use (HR = 0.71). Substance-related variables may predict all-cause psychiatric hospitalizations in prisoners with substance use problems, whereas non-substance-related psychiatric hospitalization may be predicted by baseline psychiatric problems, which calls for attention to psychiatric problems in this setting.