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Zhou L, Matsushima GK. Tyro3, Axl, Mertk receptor-mediated efferocytosis and immune regulation in the tumor environment. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 361:165-210. [PMID: 34074493 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2021.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Three structurally related tyrosine receptor cell surface kinases, Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM) have been recognized to modulate immune function, tissue homeostasis, cardiovasculature, and cancer. The TAM receptor family appears to operate in adult mammals across multiple cell types, suggesting both widespread and specific regulation of cell functions and immune niches. TAM family members regulate tissue homeostasis by monitoring the presence of phosphatidylserine expressed on stressed or apoptotic cells. The detection of phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells requires intermediary molecules that opsonize the dying cells and tether them to TAM receptors on phagocytes. This complex promotes the engulfment of apoptotic cells, also known as efferocytosis, that leads to the resolution of inflammation and tissue healing. The immune mechanisms dictating these processes appear to fall upon specific family members or may involve a complex of different receptors acting cooperatively to resolve and repair damaged tissues. Here, we focus on the role of TAM receptors in triggering efferocytosis and its consequences in the regulation of immune responses in the context of inflammation and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwen Zhou
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Glenn K Matsushima
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Integrative Program for Biological & Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.
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2
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BAFF promotes heightened BCR responsiveness and manifestations of chronic GVHD after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Blood 2021; 137:2544-2557. [PMID: 33534893 PMCID: PMC8109011 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2020008040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) have increased B cell-activating factor (BAFF) levels, but whether BAFF promotes disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (allo-BMT) remains unknown. In a major histocompatibility complex-mismatched model with cGVHD-like manifestations, we first examined B-lymphopenic μMT allo-BMT recipients and found that increased BAFF levels in cGVHD mice were not merely a reflection of B-cell number. Mice that later developed cGVHD had significantly increased numbers of recipient fibroblastic reticular cells with higher BAFF transcript levels. Increased BAFF production by donor cells also likely contributed to cGVHD, because BAFF transcript in CD4+ T cells from diseased mice and patients was increased. cGVHD manifestations in mice were associated with high BAFF/B-cell ratios and persistence of B-cell receptor (BCR)-activated B cells in peripheral blood and lesional tissue. By employing BAFF transgenic (Tg) mice donor cells, we addressed whether high BAFF contributed to BCR activation in cGVHD. BAFF increased NOTCH2 expression on B cells, augmenting BCR responsiveness to surrogate antigen and NOTCH ligand. BAFF Tg B cells had significantly increased protein levels of the proximal BCR signaling molecule SYK, and high SYK protein was maintained by BAFF after in vitro BCR activation or when alloantigen was present in vivo. Using T cell-depleted (BM only) BAFF Tg donors, we found that BAFF promoted cGVHD manifestations, circulating GL7+ B cells, and alloantibody production. We demonstrate that pathologic production of BAFF promotes an altered B-cell compartment and augments BCR responsiveness. Our findings compel studies of therapeutic targeting of BAFF and BCR pathways in patients with cGVHD.
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DuBois JC, Ray AK, Davies P, Shafit-Zagardo B. Anti-Axl antibody treatment reduces the severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:324. [PMID: 33121494 PMCID: PMC7599105 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01982-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis is an immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by inflammation, oligodendrocytes loss, demyelination, and damaged axons. Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK belong to a family of receptor tyrosine kinases that regulate innate immune responses and CNS homeostasis. During experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the mRNA expression of MerTK, Gas6, and Axl significantly increase, whereas Tyro3 and ProS1 remain unchanged. We have shown that Gas6 is neuroprotective during EAE, and since Gas6 activation of Axl may be necessary for conferring neuroprotection, we sought to determine whether α-Axl or α-MerTK antibodies, shown by others to activate their respective receptors in vivo, could effectively reduce inflammation and neurodegeneration. METHODS Mice received either α-Axl, α-MerTK, IgG isotype control, or PBS before the onset of EAE symptoms. EAE clinical course, axonal damage, demyelination, cytokine production, and immune cell activation in the CNS were used to determine the severity of EAE. RESULTS α-Axl antibody treatment significantly decreased the EAE clinical indices of female mice during chronic EAE and of male mice during both acute and chronic phases. The number of days mice were severely paralyzed also significantly decreased with α-Axl treatment. Inflammatory macrophages/microglia and the extent of demyelination significantly decreased in the spinal cords of α-Axl-treated mice during chronic EAE, with no differences in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. α-MerTK antibody did not influence EAE induction or progression. CONCLUSION Our data suggests that the beneficial effect of Gas6/Axl signaling observed in mice administered with Gas6 can be partially preserved by administering an activating α-Axl antibody, but not α-MerTK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juwen C. DuBois
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY 10461 USA
| | - Alex K. Ray
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY USA
| | - Peter Davies
- North Shore-LIJ Health System, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY USA
| | - Bridget Shafit-Zagardo
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY 10461 USA
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Shafit-Zagardo B, Gruber RC, DuBois JC. The role of TAM family receptors and ligands in the nervous system: From development to pathobiology. Pharmacol Ther 2018. [PMID: 29514053 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk, referred to as the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases, are instrumental in maintaining cell survival and homeostasis in mammals. TAM receptors interact with multiple signaling molecules to regulate cell migration, survival, phagocytosis and clearance of metabolic products and cell debris called efferocytosis. The TAMs also function as rheostats to reduce the expression of proinflammatory molecules and prevent autoimmunity. All three TAM receptors are activated in a concentration-dependent manner by the vitamin K-dependent growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6). Gas6 and the TAMs are abundantly expressed in the nervous system. Gas6, secreted by neurons and endothelial cells, is the sole ligand for Axl. ProteinS1 (ProS1), another vitamin K-dependent protein functions mainly as an anti-coagulant, and independent of this function can activate Tyro3 and Mertk, but not Axl. This review will focus on the role of the TAM receptors and their ligands in the nervous system. We highlight studies that explore the function of TAM signaling in myelination, the visual cortex, neural cancers, and multiple sclerosis (MS) using Gas6-/- and TAM mutant mice models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget Shafit-Zagardo
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Pathology, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, United States.
| | - Ross C Gruber
- Sanofi, Neuroinflammation and MS Research, 49 New York Ave, Framingham, MA 01701, United States
| | - Juwen C DuBois
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Pathology, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, United States
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Zhen Y, Finkelman FD, Shao WH. Mechanism of Mer receptor tyrosine kinase inhibition of glomerular endothelial cell inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 103:709-717. [PMID: 29350876 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.3a0917-368r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Endotoxin induces a variety of proinflammatory mediators and plays a crucial role in kidney inflammation. The receptor tyrosine kinase, Mer, diminishes renal inflammation by attenuating inflammatory responses. We previously reported that Mer is predominantly expressed on glomerular endothelial cells (GECs) and that Mer deficiency is associated with increased renal inflammation when mice are challenged with nephrotoxic serum. We consequently hypothesized that Mer signaling down-regulates LPS-driven inflammatory responses in GECs. To test this hypothesis, primary GECs were isolated from the kidneys of Mer-KO and wild-type (WT) control mice. LPS treatment induced Akt and STAT3 activation along with Bcl-xl up-regulation in WT GECs; these responses were all increased in Mer-deficient GECs. In addition, STAT1 and ERK1/2 up-regulation and activation were observed in Mer-KO GECs exposed to LPS. In contrast, expression of the inhibitory signaling molecule, suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 (SOCS-3), was much higher in LPS-stimulated WT than Mer-deficient GECs. Deficiency of Mer was also associated with significantly increased NF-κB expression and activation. These observations indicate that Mer functions as an intrinsic feedback inhibitor of inflammatory mediator-driven immune responses in GECs during kidney injury and suggest a new therapeutic strategy for glomerular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxuan Zhen
- Division of Immunology, Allergy and Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Fred D Finkelman
- Division of Immunology, Allergy and Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.,Division of Immunobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Wen-Hai Shao
- Division of Immunology, Allergy and Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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Kreiner E, Waage J, Standl M, Brix S, Pers TH, Couto Alves A, Warrington NM, Tiesler CMT, Fuertes E, Franke L, Hirschhorn JN, James A, Simpson A, Tung JY, Koppelman GH, Postma DS, Pennell CE, Jarvelin MR, Custovic A, Timpson N, Ferreira MA, Strachan DP, Henderson J, Hinds D, Bisgaard H, Bønnelykke K. Shared genetic variants suggest common pathways in allergy and autoimmune diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2017; 140:771-781. [PMID: 28188724 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.10.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The relationship between allergy and autoimmune disorders is complex and poorly understood. OBJECTIVE We sought to investigate commonalities in genetic loci and pathways between allergy and autoimmune diseases to elucidate shared disease mechanisms. METHODS We meta-analyzed 2 genome-wide association studies on self-reported allergy and sensitization comprising a total of 62,330 subjects. These results were used to calculate enrichment for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) previously associated with autoimmune diseases. Furthermore, we probed for enrichment within genetic pathways and of transcription factor binding sites and characterized commonalities in variant burden on tissue-specific regulatory sites by calculating the enrichment of allergy SNPs falling in gene regulatory regions in various cells using Encode Roadmap DNase-hypersensitive site data. Finally, we compared the allergy data with those of all known diseases. RESULTS Among 290 loci previously associated with 16 autoimmune diseases, we found a significant enrichment of loci also associated with allergy (P = 1.4e-17) encompassing 29 loci at a false discovery rate of less than 0.05. Such enrichment seemed to be a general characteristic for autoimmune diseases. Among the common loci, 48% had the same direction of effect for allergy and autoimmune diseases. Additionally, we observed an enrichment of allergy SNPs falling within immune pathways and regions of chromatin accessible in immune cells that was also represented in patients with autoimmune diseases but not those with other diseases. CONCLUSION We identified shared susceptibility loci and commonalities in pathways between allergy and autoimmune diseases, suggesting shared disease mechanisms. Further studies of these shared genetic mechanisms might help in understanding the complex relationship between these diseases, including the parallel increase in disease prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eskil Kreiner
- COPSAC, Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Johannes Waage
- COPSAC, Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Marie Standl
- Institute of Epidemiology I, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Susanne Brix
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tune H Pers
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Division of Endocrinology and Center for Basic and Translational Obesity Research, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Mass; Medical and Population Genetics Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Mass; Department of Epidemiology Research, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Alexessander Couto Alves
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole M Warrington
- University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia; School of Women's and Infants' Health, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Carla M T Tiesler
- Institute of Epidemiology I, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany; Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität of Munich, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, Munich, Germany
| | - Elaine Fuertes
- Institute of Epidemiology I, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Lude Franke
- Department of Genetics, University of Groningen, University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joel N Hirschhorn
- Division of Endocrinology and Center for Basic and Translational Obesity Research, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Mass; Medical and Population Genetics Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Mass; Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass
| | - Alan James
- Busselton Population Medical Research Foundation, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Australia; School of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of West Australia, Nedlands, Australia; Department of Pulmonary Physiology, West Australian Sleep Disorders Research Institute, Nedlands, Australia
| | - Angela Simpson
- University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University Hospital of South Manchester NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | | | - Gerard H Koppelman
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Pediatric Pulmonology and Pediatric Allergology, Beatrix Children's Hospital, GRIAC Research Institute, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Dirkje S Postma
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department Pulmonary Medicine and Tuberculosis, GRIAC Research Institute, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Craig E Pennell
- School of Women's and Infants' Health, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Marjo-Riitta Jarvelin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, MRC Health Protection Agency (HPA) Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Center for Life Course Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; Unit of Primary Care, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland; Department of Children and Young People and Families, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Oulu, Finland
| | - Adnan Custovic
- University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University Hospital of South Manchester NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Timpson
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | | | - David P Strachan
- Population Health Research Institute, St George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - John Henderson
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | | | - Hans Bisgaard
- COPSAC, Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Klaus Bønnelykke
- COPSAC, Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Antoniak S, Tatsumi K, Bode M, Vanja S, Williams JC, Mackman N. Protease-Activated Receptor 1 Enhances Poly I:C Induction of the Antiviral Response in Macrophages and Mice. J Innate Immun 2016; 9:181-192. [PMID: 27820939 DOI: 10.1159/000450853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The coagulation cascade is activated during viral infections as part of the host defense system. Coagulation proteases activate cells by cleavage of protease-activated receptors (PARs). Recently, we reported that the activation of PAR-1 enhanced interferon (IFN)β and CXCL10 expression in cardiac fibroblasts and in the hearts of mice infected with Coxsackievirus B3. In this study, we used the double-stranded RNA mimetic polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) to induce an antiviral response in macrophages and mice. Activation of PAR-1 enhanced poly I:C induction of IFNβ and CXCL10 expression in the murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7, bone-marrow derived mouse macrophages (BMM) and mouse splenocytes. Next, poly I:C was used to induce a type I IFN innate immune response in the spleen and plasma of wild-type (WT) and PAR-1-/- mice. We found that poly I:C treated PAR-1-/- mice and WT mice given the thrombin inhibitor dabigatran etexilate exhibited significantly less IFNβ and CXCL10 expression in the spleen and plasma than WT mice. These studies suggest that thrombin activation of PAR-1 contributes to the antiviral response in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvio Antoniak
- Thrombosis and Hemostasis Program, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, UNC McAllister Heart Institute, Chapel Hill, N.C., USA
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Ji J, Xu J, Li F, Li X, Gong W, Song Y, Dou H, Hou Y. A benzenediamine derivate FC-99 attenuates lupus nephritis in MRL/lpr mice via inhibiting myeloid dendritic cell-secreted BAFF. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2016; 48:411-9. [PMID: 27121231 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmw017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloid dendritic cells (DCs) can produce B-cell-activating factor (BAFF) that modulates survival and differentiation of B cells and plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling has important functions in the process of BAFF production. Our previous study showed that a benzenediamine derivate FC-99 possesses anti-inflammation activity and directly interacts with interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (IRAK4), which was a pivotal molecule in TLR4 signaling. In this study, we demonstrated that FC-99 attenuated lupus nephritis in the MRL/lpr mice. FC-99 also decreased the levels of total immunoglobulin G (IgG), total IgG2a and IgM in sera, as well as the activation of B cells in the spleens of MRL/lpr mice. Moreover, FC-99 inhibited abnormal activation of myeloid DCs in spleens and reduced the levels of BAFF in sera, spleens, and kidneys of MRL/lpr mice. Furthermore, upon TLR4 stimulation with lipopolysaccharide in vitro, FC-99 inhibited IRAK4 phosphorylation, as well as the activation and BAFF production in murine bone marrow-derived DCs. These data indicate that FC-99 attenuates lupus nephritis in MRL/lpr mice via inhibiting DC-secreted BAFF, suggesting that FC-99 may be a potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjian Ji
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Jingjing Xu
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Fanlin Li
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Xiaojing Li
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Wei Gong
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Yuxian Song
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Huan Dou
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Yayi Hou
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Immunology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing 210093, China
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Jung JY, Suh CH. Incomplete clearance of apoptotic cells in systemic lupus erythematosus: pathogenic role and potential biomarker. Int J Rheum Dis 2015; 18:294-303. [PMID: 25884792 DOI: 10.1111/1756-185x.12568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease with repeated inflammation against multiple organs. Although its pathophysiology is not yet unveiled, uncleared apoptotic cells and their accumulation in tissue contribute to the autoimmune disturbance in SLE. Apoptosis is a programmed cell death process, which maintains tissue homeostasis and inhibits the development of any further immune response against apoptotic remnants. Earlier studies revealed that various 'eat-me' signals on apoptotic cells, bridging molecules and their receptors on phagocytes play a role in such a complicated process. Tyro3-Axl-Mer receptors, their bridging molecules, milk fat globulin epidermal growth factor-8, T-cell immunoglobulin mucin domain protein family, scavenger receptors, C1q, and pentraxins were found to be abnormal in SLE. In this review, apoptosis and clearance of its remnants are summarized, and the molecules involved in the incomplete clearance of apoptotic cells in SLE are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ju-Yang Jung
- Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
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Cabezón R, Carrera-Silva EA, Flórez-Grau G, Errasti AE, Calderón-Gómez E, Lozano JJ, España C, Ricart E, Panés J, Rothlin CV, Benítez-Ribas D. MERTK as negative regulator of human T cell activation. J Leukoc Biol 2015; 97:751-60. [PMID: 25624460 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.3a0714-334r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis whether MERTK, which is up-regulated in human DCs treated with immunosuppressive agents, is directly involved in modulating T cell activation. MERTK is a member of the TAM family and contributes to regulating innate immune response to ACs by inhibiting DC activation in animal models. However, whether MERTK interacts directly with T cells has not been addressed. Here, we show that MERTK is highly expressed on dex-induced human tol-DCs and participates in their tolerogenic effect. Neutralization of MERTK in allogenic MLR, as well as autologous DC-T cell cultures, leads to increased T cell proliferation and IFN-γ production. Additionally, we identify a previously unrecognized noncell-autonomous regulatory function of MERTK expressed on DCs. Mer-Fc protein, used to mimic MERTK on DCs, suppresses naïve and antigen-specific memory T cell activation. This mechanism is mediated by the neutralization of the MERTK ligand PROS1. We find that MERTK and PROS1 are expressed in human T cells upon TCR activation and drive an autocrine proproliferative mechanism. Collectively, these results suggest that MERTK on DCs controls T cell activation and expansion through the competition for PROS1 interaction with MERTK in the T cells. In conclusion, this report identified MERTK as a potent suppressor of T cell response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Cabezón
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - E Antonio Carrera-Silva
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Georgina Flórez-Grau
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Andrea E Errasti
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Elisabeth Calderón-Gómez
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Juan José Lozano
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Carolina España
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Elena Ricart
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Julián Panés
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Carla Vanina Rothlin
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Daniel Benítez-Ribas
- *Fundació Clínic per a la Recerca Biomèdica, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain; 3ra Cátedra de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; and Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
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11
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Shao WH, Zhen Y, Finkelman FD, Cohen PL. The Mertk receptor tyrosine kinase promotes T-B interaction stimulated by IgD B-cell receptor cross-linking. J Autoimmun 2014; 53:78-84. [PMID: 24768065 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2014.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The Mertk receptor tyrosine kinase facilitates macrophage and DC apoptotic-cell clearance and regulates immune tolerance. Mertk may also contribute to B-cell activation, because Mertk-KO mice fail to develop autoantibodies when allo-activated by T cells. We investigated this possibility with a well-characterized model in which injection of mice with goat anti-IgD antibody causes membrane IgD cross-linking that induces T-independent B cell activation and antigen presentation to T cells. Goat anti-mouse IgD antibody-injected C57BL/6 Mertk-KO mice had normal initial B cell activation and proliferation, but significantly lower T cell activation and proliferation, as well as lower IgE and IgG anti-goat IgG responses, as compared to C57BL/6 WT controls. B cell antigen processing, analyzed by evaluating B cell fluorescence following injection of monoclonal anti-IgD antibody labeled with biotin or FITC, was comparable between Mertk-KO mice and WT mice. IgD Ab primed B cells from Mertk-KO mice exhibited significantly lower ability in activating memory T cells isolated from WT mice injected with the same antigen 10 days before. These observations suggest that Mertk expression is required for optimal B-cell antigen presentation, which is, in turn, required in this model for optimal T cell activation and subsequent T cell-dependent B cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Hai Shao
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Temple University, 3322 N. Broad St., Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Yuxuan Zhen
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Temple University, 3322 N. Broad St., Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Fred D Finkelman
- Department of Medicine, Cincinnati Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45220, USA; Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA; Division of Immunobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Philip L Cohen
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Temple University, 3322 N. Broad St., Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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Nguyen KQ, Tsou WI, Kotenko S, Birge RB. TAM receptors in apoptotic cell clearance, autoimmunity, and cancer. Autoimmunity 2013; 46:294-7. [PMID: 23662598 DOI: 10.3109/08916934.2013.794515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases, Tyro-3, Axl and Mer, collectively designated as TAM, are involved in the clearance of apoptotic cells. TAM ligands, Gas6 and Protein S, bind to the surfaces of apoptotic cells, and at the same time, interact directly with TAM expressed on phagocytes, impacting the engulfment and clearance of apoptotic cells and debris. The well-tuned and balanced actions of TAM may affect a variety of human pathologies including autoimmunity, retinal degeneration, and cancer. This article emphasizes some of the emerging findings and mechanistic insights into TAM functions that are clinically relevant and possibly therapeutically targeted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khanh-Quynh Nguyen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
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13
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Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are specialized sentinels responsible for coordinating adaptive immunity. This function is dependent upon coupled sensitivity to environmental signs of inflammation and infection to cellular maturation-the programmed alteration of DC phenotype and function to enhance immune cell activation. Although DCs are thus well equipped to respond to pathogens, maturation triggers are not unique to infection. Given that immune cells are exquisitely sensitive to the biological functions of DCs, we now appreciate that multiple layers of suppression are required to restrict the environmental sensitivity, cellular maturation, and even life span of DCs to prevent aberrant immune activation during the steady state. At the same time, steady-state DCs are not quiescent but rather perform key functions that support homeostasis of numerous cell types. Here we review these functions and molecular mechanisms of suppression that control steady-state DC maturation. Corruption of these steady-state operatives has diverse immunological consequences and pinpoints DCs as potent drivers of autoimmune and inflammatory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianna Elena Hammer
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143
| | - Averil Ma
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143
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14
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Townsend KN, Hughson LRK, Schlie K, Poon VI, Westerback A, Lum JJ. Autophagy inhibition in cancer therapy: metabolic considerations for antitumor immunity. Immunol Rev 2012; 249:176-94. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2012.01141.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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15
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Pau E, Cheung YH, Loh C, Lajoie G, Wither JE. TLR tolerance reduces IFN-alpha production despite plasmacytoid dendritic cell expansion and anti-nuclear antibodies in NZB bicongenic mice. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36761. [PMID: 22574220 PMCID: PMC3344944 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic loci on New Zealand Black (NZB) chromosomes 1 and 13 play a significant role in the development of lupus-like autoimmune disease. We have previously shown that C57BL/6 (B6) congenic mice with homozygous NZB chromosome 1 (B6.NZBc1) or 13 (B6.NZBc13) intervals develop anti-nuclear antibodies and mild glomerulonephritis (GN), together with increased T and B cell activation. Here, we produced B6.NZBc1c13 bicongenic mice with both intervals, and demonstrate several novel phenotypes including: marked plasmacytoid and myeloid dendritic cell expansion, and elevated IgA production. Despite these changes, only minor increases in anti-nuclear antibody production were seen, and the severity of GN was reduced as compared to B6.NZBc1 mice. Although bicongenic mice had increased levels of baff and tnf-α mRNA in their spleens, the levels of IFN-α-induced gene expression were reduced. Splenocytes from bicongenic mice also demonstrated reduced secretion of IFN-α following TLR stimulation in vitro. This reduction was not due to inhibition by TNF-α and IL-10, or regulation by other cellular populations. Because pDC in bicongenic mice are chronically exposed to nuclear antigen-containing immune complexes in vivo, we examined whether repeated stimulation of mouse pDC with TLR ligands leads to impaired IFN-α production, a phenomenon termed TLR tolerance. Bone marrow pDC from both B6 and bicongenic mice demonstrated markedly inhibited secretion of IFN-α following repeated stimulation with a TLR9 ligand. Our findings suggest that the expansion of pDC and production of anti-nuclear antibodies need not be associated with increased IFN-α production and severe kidney disease, revealing additional complexity in the regulation of autoimmunity in systemic lupus erythematosus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Pau
- Arthritis Centre of Excellence, Toronto Western Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Yui-Ho Cheung
- Arthritis Centre of Excellence, Toronto Western Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christina Loh
- Arthritis Centre of Excellence, Toronto Western Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ginette Lajoie
- Department of Pathology, Mount Sinai Hospital and William Osler Health Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joan E. Wither
- Arthritis Centre of Excellence, Toronto Western Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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16
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Rahman ZSM, Shao WH, Khan TN, Zhen Y, Cohen PL. Impaired apoptotic cell clearance in the germinal center by Mer-deficient tingible body macrophages leads to enhanced antibody-forming cell and germinal center responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:5859-68. [PMID: 20952679 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1001187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Germinal centers (GCs) are specialized microenvironments that generate high-affinity Ab-forming cells (AFCs) and memory B cells. Many B cells undergo apoptosis during B cell clonal selection in GCs. Although the factors that regulate the AFC and GC responses are not precisely understood, it is widely believed that dysregulated AFCs and GCs contribute to autoimmunity. The Mer receptor tyrosine kinase (Mer) facilitates macrophage clearance of apoptotic cells. The Tyro-3, Axl, and Mer receptors, including Mer, suppress TLRs and cytokine-mediated inflammatory responses. We report in this study that tingible body macrophages (TBMφs) in GCs express Mer. Compared to C57BL/6 (B6) controls, Mer-deficient (Mer(-/-)) mice had significantly higher AFC, GC, and Th1-skewed IgG2 Ab (especially IgG2c) responses against the T cell-dependent Ag (4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl) acetyl-chicken γ globulin. Mer(-/-) mice had a significantly higher percentage of GC B cells on days 9, 14, and 21 postimmunization compared with B6 controls. Significantly increased numbers of apoptotic cells accumulated in Mer(-/-) GCs than in B6 GCs, whereas the number of TBMφs remained similar in both strains. Our data are the first, to our knowledge, to demonstrate a critical role for Mer in GC apoptotic cell clearance by TBMφs and have interesting implications for Mer in the regulation of B cell tolerance operative in the AFC and GC pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziaur S M Rahman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107-5541, USA.
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Williams JC, Wagner NJ, Earp HS, Vilen BJ, Matsushima GK. Increased hematopoietic cells in the mertk-/- mouse peritoneal cavity: a result of augmented migration. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:6637-48. [PMID: 20483720 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The peritoneal cavity is recognized as an important site for autoreactive B cells prior to their transit to other immune tissues; however, little is known of the genes that may regulate this process. Mice lacking the receptor tyrosine kinase, Mertk, display a lupus-like autoimmune phenotype with splenomegaly and high autoantibodies titers. In this study, we investigate whether Mertk regulates the composition of peritoneal cells that favor an autoimmune phenotype. We found an increase in the number of macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs), plasmacytoid DCs, T cells, and B cells in the peritoneal cavity of mertk-/- mice when compared with wild-type mice. This disparity in cell numbers was not due to changes in cell proliferation or cell death. In adoptive transfer experiments, we showed an increase in migration of labeled donor cells into the mertk-/- peritoneal cavity. In addition, bone marrow chimeric mice showed hematopoietic-derived factors were also critical for T cell migration. Consistent with this migration and the increase in the number of cells, we identified elevated expression of CXCL9, its receptor CXCR3, and IL-7R on peritoneal cells from mertk-/- mice. To corroborate the migratory function of CXCR3 on cells, the depletion of CXCR3 donor cells significantly reduced the number of adoptively transferred cells that entered into the peritoneum of mertk-/- mice. This control of peritoneal cells numbers correlated with autoantibody production and was exclusively attributed to Mertk because mice lacking other family members, Axl or Tyro 3, did not display dysregulation in peritoneal cell numbers or the autoimmune phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie C Williams
- Curriculum in Oral Biology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Cheung YH, Loh C, Pau E, Kim J, Wither J. Insights into the genetic basis and immunopathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus from the study of mouse models. Semin Immunol 2009; 21:372-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2009.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2009] [Accepted: 10/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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