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Mai TT, Kayansamruaj P, Soontara C, Kerddee P, Nguyen DH, Senapin S, Costa JZ, del-Pozo J, Thompson KD, Rodkhum C, Dong HT. Immunization of Nile Tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus) Broodstock with Tilapia Lake Virus (TiLV) Inactivated Vaccines Elicits Protective Antibody and Passive Maternal Antibody Transfer. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:167. [PMID: 35214626 PMCID: PMC8879158 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10020167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Tilapia lake virus (TiLV), a major pathogen of farmed tilapia, is known to be vertically transmitted. Here, we hypothesize that Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) broodstock immunized with a TiLV inactivated vaccine can mount a protective antibody response and passively transfer maternal antibodies to their fertilized eggs and larvae. To test this hypothesis, three groups of tilapia broodstock, each containing four males and eight females, were immunized with either a heat-killed TiLV vaccine (HKV), a formalin-killed TiLV vaccine (FKV) (both administered at 3.6 × 106 TCID50 per fish), or with L15 medium. Booster vaccination with the same vaccines was given 3 weeks later, and mating took place 1 week thereafter. Broodstock blood sera, fertilized eggs and larvae were collected from 6-14 weeks post-primary vaccination for measurement of TiLV-specific antibody (anti-TiLV IgM) levels. In parallel, passive immunization using sera from the immunized female broodstock was administered to naïve tilapia juveniles to assess if antibodies induced in immunized broodstock were protective. The results showed that anti-TiLV IgM was produced in the majority of both male and female broodstock vaccinated with either the HKV or FKV and that these antibodies could be detected in the fertilized eggs and larvae from vaccinated broodstock. Higher levels of maternal antibody were observed in fertilized eggs from broodstock vaccinated with HKV than those vaccinated with FKV. Low levels of TiLV-IgM were detected in some of the 1-3 day old larvae but were undetectable in 7-14 day old larvae from the vaccinated broodstock, indicating a short persistence of TiLV-IgM in larvae. Moreover, passive immunization proved that antibodies elicited by TiLV vaccination were able to confer 85% to 90% protection against TiLV challenge in naïve juvenile tilapia. In conclusion, immunization of tilapia broodstock with TiLV vaccines could be a potential strategy for the prevention of TiLV in tilapia fertilized eggs and larvae, with HKV appearing to be more promising than FKV for maternal vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thao Thu Mai
- Center of Excellence in Fish Infectious Diseases (CE FID), Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (T.T.M.); (D.-H.N.)
- The International Graduate Program of Veterinary Science and Technology (VST), Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Division of Aquacultural Biotechnology, Biotechnology Center of Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh 700000, Vietnam
| | - Pattanapon Kayansamruaj
- Center of Excellence in Aquatic Animal Health Management, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; (P.K.); (C.S.); (P.K.)
| | - Chayanit Soontara
- Center of Excellence in Aquatic Animal Health Management, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; (P.K.); (C.S.); (P.K.)
| | - Pattarawit Kerddee
- Center of Excellence in Aquatic Animal Health Management, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; (P.K.); (C.S.); (P.K.)
| | - Dinh-Hung Nguyen
- Center of Excellence in Fish Infectious Diseases (CE FID), Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (T.T.M.); (D.-H.N.)
| | - Saengchan Senapin
- Fish Health Platform, Center of Excellence for Shrimp Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (Centex Shrimp), Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Khlong Nueng 12120, Thailand
| | - Janina Z. Costa
- Aquaculture Research Group, Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh EH26 0PZ, UK; (J.Z.C.); (K.D.T.)
| | - Jorge del-Pozo
- Infection and Immunity Division, Roslin Institute, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, UK;
| | - Kim D. Thompson
- Aquaculture Research Group, Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh EH26 0PZ, UK; (J.Z.C.); (K.D.T.)
| | - Channarong Rodkhum
- Center of Excellence in Fish Infectious Diseases (CE FID), Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (T.T.M.); (D.-H.N.)
- The International Graduate Program of Veterinary Science and Technology (VST), Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Ha Thanh Dong
- Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Program, Department of Food, Agriculture and Bioresources, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Khlong Nueng 12120, Thailand
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Kim SJ, Oh MJ. Potentiality to natural immunization inducement against VHS in olive flounder by live VHSV immersion vaccination at temperature controlled culture condition. Virus Res 2020; 288:198140. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Díaz-Rosales P, Muñoz-Atienza E, Tafalla C. Role of teleost B cells in viral immunity. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 86:135-142. [PMID: 30448446 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Teleost fish possess all the necessary elements to mount an adaptive immune response. Despite this, the important physiological and structural differences between the mammalian and the teleost fish immune system, anticipate significant changes regarding how this response is coordinated and executed. B cells are key players in adaptive immune responses through the production of antibodies. However, recent studies performed in mammals and other species including fish point to many additional functions of B cells within both the adaptive and the innate immune system, in many occasions taking part in the crosstalk between these two arms of the immune response. Furthermore, it should be taken into account that fish B cells share many functional and phenotypical features with innate B cell populations from mammals, which will surely condition their response to antigens. Concerning viral infections, although most studies undertaken to date in fish have been focused on characterizing antibody production, some recent studies have demonstrated that fish B cells are able to interact with viruses at different levels. In this sense, in the current review, we have tried to provide an overview of what is currently known regarding the role of teleost B cells in antiviral immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Carolina Tafalla
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain.
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Munang'andu HM, Evensen Ø. Correlates of protective immunity for fish vaccines. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 85:132-140. [PMID: 29621636 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.03.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Vaccination is one of the most effective disease control strategies that has contributed to the significant reduction of disease outbreaks and antibiotics usage in salmonid aquaculture. To date, licensing of fish vaccines is to a limited extent based on in vitro correlates of protection, as done for many mammalian vaccines. This is because the immunological mechanisms of vaccine protection have not been clearly elucidated for most fish vaccines. Herein, we provide an overview of the different steps required to establish correlates of protective immunity required to serve as benchmarks in optimizing vaccine production in aquaculture. We highlight the importance of optimizing challenge models needed to generate consistent results used during vaccine development as a basis for establishing immune correlates of protection. Data generated this far shows that antibodies are potentially the most reliable correlates of protective immunity for fish vaccines. Our findings also show that antigen dose can be optimized to serve as a correlate of protection for fish vaccines. Further, there is need to establish signatures of T-cell protective immunity when antibodies fail to serve as proxies of immune protection, particularly for vaccines against intracellular pathogens. We can anticipate that documentation of efficacy for future vaccines in aquaculture, particularly batch testing will be based on in vitro correlates of protective immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hetron Mweemba Munang'andu
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Ullevålsveien 72, P.O. Box 8146, NO-0033, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Øystein Evensen
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Ullevålsveien 72, P.O. Box 8146, NO-0033, Oslo, Norway.
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Hart LM, Lorenzen N, Einer-Jensen K, Purcell MK, Hershberger PK. Influence of Temperature on the Efficacy of Homologous and Heterologous DNA Vaccines against Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia in Pacific Herring. JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH 2017; 29:121-128. [PMID: 28696830 DOI: 10.1080/08997659.2017.1307287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Homologous and heterologous (genogroup Ia) DNA vaccines against viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (genogroup IVa) conferred partial protection in Pacific Herring Clupea pallasii. Early protection at 2 weeks postvaccination (PV) was low and occurred only at an elevated temperature (12.6°C, 189 degree days), where the relative percent survival following viral exposure was similar for the two vaccines (IVa and Ia) and higher than that of negative controls at the same temperature. Late protection at 10 weeks PV was induced by both vaccines but was higher with the homologous vaccine at both 9.0°C and 12.6°C. Virus neutralization titers were detected among 55% of all vaccinated fish at 10 weeks PV. The results suggest that the immune response profile triggered by DNA vaccination of herring was similar to that reported for Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss by Lorenzen and LaPatra in 2005, who found interferon responses in the early days PV and the transition to adaptive response later. However, the protective effect was far less prominent in herring, possibly reflecting different physiologies or adaptations of the two fish species. Received August 1, 2016; accepted March 10, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas M Hart
- a U.S. Geological Survey , Western Fisheries Research Center , Marrowstone Marine Field Station, Nordland , Washington 98358 , USA
| | - Niels Lorenzen
- b Aarhus University , Hangøvej 2, Aarhus N 8200 , Denmark
| | | | - Maureen K Purcell
- d U.S. Geological Survey , Western Fisheries Research Center , Seattle , Washington 98358 , USA
| | - Paul K Hershberger
- a U.S. Geological Survey , Western Fisheries Research Center , Marrowstone Marine Field Station, Nordland , Washington 98358 , USA
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Hart LM, MacKenzie A, Purcell MK, Powers RL, Hershberger PK. Optimization of a Plaque Neutralization Test (PNT) to Identify the Exposure History of Pacific Herring to Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus (VHSV). JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH 2017; 29:74-82. [PMID: 28375717 DOI: 10.1080/08997659.2017.1285369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Methods for a plaque neutralization test (PNT) were optimized for the detection and quantification of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) neutralizing activity in the plasma of Pacific Herring Clupea pallasii. The PNT was complement dependent, as neutralizing activity was attenuated by heat inactivation; further, neutralizing activity was mostly restored by the addition of exogenous complement from specific-pathogen-free Pacific Herring. Optimal methods included the overnight incubation of VHSV aliquots in serial dilutions (starting at 1:16) of whole test plasma containing endogenous complement. The resulting viral titers were then enumerated using a viral plaque assay in 96-well microplates. Serum neutralizing activity was virus-specific as plasma from viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) survivors demonstrated only negligible reactivity to infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus, a closely related rhabdovirus. Among Pacific Herring that survived VHSV exposure, neutralizing activity was detected in the plasma as early as 37 d postexposure and peaked at approximately 64 d postexposure. The onset of neutralizing activity was slightly delayed in fish reared at 7.4°C relative to those in warmer temperatures (9.9°C and 13.1°C); however, neutralizing activity persisted for at least 345 d postexposure in all temperature treatments. It is anticipated that this novel ability to assess VHSV neutralizing activity in Pacific Herring will enable retrospective comparisons between prior VHS infections and year-class recruitment failures. Additionally, the optimized PNT could be employed as a forecasting tool capable of identifying the potential for future VHS epizootics in wild Pacific Herring populations. Received November 7, 2016; accepted January 14, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas M Hart
- a U.S. Geological Survey , Western Fisheries Research Center, Marrowstone Marine Field Station , 616 Marrowstone Point Road, Nordland , Washington 98358 , USA
| | - Ashley MacKenzie
- a U.S. Geological Survey , Western Fisheries Research Center, Marrowstone Marine Field Station , 616 Marrowstone Point Road, Nordland , Washington 98358 , USA
| | - Maureen K Purcell
- b U.S. Geological Survey , Western Fisheries Research Center , 6505 Northeast 65th Street, Seattle , Washington 98358 , USA
| | - Rachel L Powers
- b U.S. Geological Survey , Western Fisheries Research Center , 6505 Northeast 65th Street, Seattle , Washington 98358 , USA
| | - Paul K Hershberger
- a U.S. Geological Survey , Western Fisheries Research Center, Marrowstone Marine Field Station , 616 Marrowstone Point Road, Nordland , Washington 98358 , USA
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Hedegaard CJ, Heegaard PMH. Passive immunisation, an old idea revisited: Basic principles and application to modern animal production systems. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2016; 174:50-63. [PMID: 27185263 PMCID: PMC7127230 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2016.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Immunisation by administration of antibodies (immunoglobulins) has been known for more than one hundred years as a very efficient means of obtaining immediate, short-lived protection against infection and/or against the disease-causing effects of toxins from microbial pathogens and from other sources. Thus, due to its rapid action, passive immunisation is often used to treat disease caused by infection and/or toxin exposure. However immunoglobulins may also be administered prior to exposure to infection and/or toxin, although they will not provide long-lasting protection as is seen with active immunisation (vaccination) in which an immunological memory is established by controlled exposure of the host to the pathogen in question. With multi-factorial infectious diseases in production animals, especially those that have proven hard to control by vaccination, the potential of passive immunisation remains big. This review highlights a number of examples on the use of passive immunisation for the control of infectious disease in the modern production of a range of animals, including pigs, cattle, sheep, goat, poultry and fish. Special emphasis is given on the enablement of passive immunisation strategies in these production systems through low cost and ease of use as well as on the sources, composition and purity of immunoglobulin preparations used and their benefits as compared to current measures, including vaccination (also comprising maternal vaccination), antibiotics and feed additives such as spray-dried plasma. It is concluded that provided highly efficient, relatively low-price immunoglobulin products are available, passive immunisation has a clear role in the modern animal production sector as a means of controlling infectious diseases, importantly with a very low risk of causing development of bacterial resistance, thus constituting a real and widely applicable alternative to antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris J Hedegaard
- National Veterinary Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Section for Immunology and Vaccinology, The innate immunology Group, Denmark.
| | - Peter M H Heegaard
- National Veterinary Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Section for Immunology and Vaccinology, The innate immunology Group, Denmark
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Imanse SM, Cornwell ER, Getchell RG, Kurath G, Bowser PR. In vivo and in vitro phenotypic differences between Great Lakes VHSV genotype IVb isolates with sequence types vcG001 and vcG002. JOURNAL OF GREAT LAKES RESEARCH 2014; 40:879-885. [PMID: 25722533 PMCID: PMC4337033 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2014.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) is an aquatic rhabdovirus first recognized in farmed rainbow trout in Denmark. In the past decade, a new genotype of this virus, IVb was discovered in the Laurentian Great Lakes basin and has caused several massive die-offs in some of the 28 species of susceptible North American freshwater fishes. Since its colonization of the Great Lakes, several closely related sequence types within genotype IVb have been reported, the two most common of which are vcG001 and vcG002. These sequence types have different spatial distributions in the Great Lakes. The aim of this study was to determine whether the genotypic differences between representative vcG001 (isolate MI03) and vcG002 (isolate 2010-030 #91) isolates correspond to phenotypic differences in terms of virulence using both an in vitro and in vivo approach. In vitro infection of epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC), bluegill fry (BF-2), and Chinook salmon embryo (CHSE) cells demonstrated some differences in onset and rate of growth in EPC and BF-2 cells, without any difference in the quantity of RNA produced. In vivo infection of round gobies (Neogobius melanostomus) via immersion exposure to different concentrations of vcG001 or vcG002 caused a significantly greater mortality in round gobies exposed to 102 plaque forming units ml-1 of vcG001. These experiments suggest that there are phenotypic differences between Great Lakes isolates of VHSV genotype IVb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sierra M. Imanse
- Aquatic Animal Health Program, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
| | - Emily R. Cornwell
- Aquatic Animal Health Program, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
| | - Rodman G. Getchell
- Aquatic Animal Health Program, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
| | - Gael Kurath
- Western Fisheries Research Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 6505 NE 65 Street, Seattle, WA
| | - Paul R. Bowser
- Aquatic Animal Health Program, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
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Ye J, Kaattari IM, Ma C, Kaattari S. The teleost humoral immune response. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 35:1719-28. [PMID: 24436975 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2013.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Over the past 10 years our knowledge of cellular and molecular dynamics of teleost humoral immunity has increased enormously to now include: the existence of multiple isotypes, affinity-driven modulation of antibody structure and function, the unique trafficking patterns of each stage of B cell differentiation (including the plasma blast, short-lived and long-lived plasma cell, and the memory cell). Unfortunately the work which has generated the bulk of this information has generally employed defined antigens rather than vaccines. Thus, the focus of this review is to relate these aspects of immunity that are requisite for a mechanistic understanding of the generation of prophylactic immunity to the necessary analysis of responses to vaccines and vaccine candidates.
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Hart LM, Lorenzen N, LaPatra SE, Grady CA, Roon SE, O'Reilly J, Gregg JL, Hershberger PK. Efficacy of a glycoprotein DNA vaccine against viral haemorrhagic septicaemia (VHS) in Pacific herring, Clupea pallasii Valenciennes. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2012; 35:775-779. [PMID: 22804506 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2012.01364.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- L M Hart
- US Geological Survey, Western Fisheries Research Center, Marrowstone Marine Field Station, Nordland, WA 98358, USA.
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Purcell MK, Bromage ES, Silva J, Hansen JD, Badil SM, Woodson JC, Hershberger PK. Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies to IgM of Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 33:552-558. [PMID: 22771742 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2012.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Revised: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 06/13/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii) have a central role in the North Pacific ecosystem as a forage fish species and are natural reservoirs of several important finfish pathogens, including Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV). Here, we report the identification of the gene encoding the immunoglobulin mu (IgM) heavy chain, as well as the development and characterization of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that specifically react with Pacific herring IgM. Pacific herring immunoglobulin was purified and consisted of heavy and light chains of approximately 80 and 25 kDa. Three hybridoma clones were initially identified by ELISA as reactive with purified immunoglobulin but only one clone was able to detect an 80 kDa protein in Pacific and Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) whole plasma by denaturing western blot. However, all three MAbs were able to precipitate an 80 kDa protein from Pacific herring and LCMS sequencing of peptide fragments derived from this protein matched the predicted amino acid sequence of the cloned, heavy chain gene. In addition, two of the MAbs stained cells within the putative lymphocyte gates for the spleen, anterior kidney and posterior kidney but were not reactive for myeloid/granulocyte gates, which is consistent with these MAbs reacting with surface IgM⁺ B-cells. To our knowledge, this is the first report of IgM-related gene sequences and anti-IgM monoclonal antibodies from any member of the family Clupeidae. The antibodies produced in this study are critical for achieving our long-term goal of conducting serological surveillance to assess pathogen exposure in natural populations of Pacific herring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen K Purcell
- US Geological Survey, Western Fisheries Research Center, 6505 NE 65th Street, Seattle, WA 98115, USA.
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Abstract
Members of the family Rhabdoviridae are single-stranded RNA viruses and globally important pathogens of wild and cultured fish and thus relatively well studied in their respective hosts or other model systems. Here, we review the protective immune mechanisms that fish mount in response to rhabdovirus infections. Teleost fish possess the principal components of innate and adaptive immunity found in other vertebrates. Neutralizing antibodies are critical for long-term protection from fish rhabdoviruses, but several studies also indicate a role for cell-mediated immunity. Survival of acute rhabdoviral infection is also dependent on innate immunity, particularly the interferon (IFN) system that is rapidly induced in response to infection. Paradoxically, rhabdoviruses are sensitive to the effects of IFN but virulent rhabdoviruses can continue to replicate owing to the abilities of the matrix (M) protein to mediate host-cell shutoff and the non‑virion (NV) protein to subvert programmed cell death and suppress functional IFN. While many basic features of the fish immune response to rhabdovirus infections are becoming better understood, much less is known about how factors in the environment affect the ecology of rhabdovirus infections in natural populations of aquatic animals.
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