Anti-TNF-α Therapy for Refractory Uveitis Associated with Behçet's Syndrome and Sarcoidosis: A Single Center Study of 131 Patients

Decoding Behcet's Uveitis: an In-depth review of pathogenesis and therapeutic advances

Behcet's disease (BD) is a rare but globally distributed vasculitis that primarily affects populations in the Mediterranean and Asian regions. Behcet's uveitis (BU) is a common manifestation of BD, occurring in over two-thirds of the patients. BU is characterized by bilateral, chronic, recurrent, non-granulomatous uveitis in association with complications such as retinal ischemia and atrophy, optic atrophy, macular ischemia, macular edema, and further neovascular complications (vitreous hemorrhage, neovascular glaucoma). Although the etiology and pathogenesis of BU remain unclear, numerous studies reveal that genetic factors (such as HLA-B51), dysregulated immune responses of both the innate and adaptive immune systems, infections (such as streptococcus), and environmental factors (such as GDP) are all involved in its development. Innate immunity, including hyperactivity of neutrophils and γδT cells and elevated NK1/NK2 ratios, has been shown to play an essential role in this disease. Adaptive immune system disturbance, including homeostatic perturbations, Th1, Th17 overaction, and Treg cell dysfunction, is thought to be involved in BU pathogenesis. Treatment of BU requires a tailored approach based on the location, severity of inflammation, and systemic manifestations. The therapy aims to achieve rapid inflammation suppression, preservation of vision, and prevention of recurrence. Systemic corticosteroids combined with other immunosuppressive agents have been widely used to treat BU, and beneficial effects are observed in most patients. Recently, biologics have been shown to be effective in treating refractory BU cases. Novel therapeutic targets for treating BU include the LCK gene, Th17/Treg balance, JAK pathway inhibition, and cytokines such as IL-17 and RORγt. This article summarizes the recent studies on BU, especially in terms of pathogenesis, diagnostic criteria and classification, auxiliary examination, and treatment options. A better understanding of the significance of microbiome composition, genetic basis, and persistent immune mechanisms, as well as advancements in identifying new biomarkers and implementing objective quantitative detection of BU, may greatly contribute to improving the adequate management of BU patients.

Long-term efficacy, safety, and cumulative retention rate of antitumor necrosis factor-alpha treatment for patients with Behcet's uveitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

AIM

This study aims to evaluate the long-term efficacy, safety, and cumulative retention rate of antitumor necrosis factor-alpha (anti-TNF-α) therapy for patients with Behcet's uveitis (BU) using meta-analysis.

METHODS

We searched the Web of Science and PubMed databases for eligible studies up to December 1, 2022. The quality of each identified study was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute's case series literature quality assessment tool. Statistical analysis was conducted using Stata 16.0 software with a random-effects model.

RESULTS

Twelve studies comprising 1156 patients with BU were included in our analysis. We found that 85.0% of patients achieved ocular inflammation remission after receiving anti-TNF-α treatment, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) ranging from 78.7% to 90.5%. Additionally, 77.4% (95% CI: 57.5%-92.5%) experienced an improvement in visual acuity (VA). Moreover, the pooled dose reduction of glucocorticoids (GCs) was 11.08 mg (95% CI: -13.34 mg to -8.83 mg). Throughout the follow-up period, the cumulative retention rate of the medication was 67.3% (95% CI: 53.7%-79.6%). Serious adverse events occurred in 5.8% (95% CI: 3.1%-8.9%) of cases, with the three most common types being severe infusion or injection reactions (2.7%; 95% CI: 0.8%-5.4%), tuberculosis (1.3%; 95% CI: 0.0%-3.9%), and bacterial pneumonia (1.3%; 95% CI: 0.1%-3.4%). Subgroup analysis revealed that ocular inflammation remission rates were 89.3% (95% CI: 81.2%-95.5%) for adalimumab treatment and 83.7% (95% CI: 75.3%-90.8%) for infliximab treatment. The drug retention rate after adalimumab therapy was 70.3% (95% CI: 62.0%-78.0%) compared to 66.4% (95% CI: 48.6%-82.2%) for infliximab treatment. Furthermore, the incidence of severe infusion or injection reactions was 2.2% (95% CI: 0.1%-5.8%) following adalimumab treatment and 3.5% (95% CI: 0.7%-7.7%) following infliximab treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Anti-TNF-α therapy represents an effective treatment for BU patients with favorable safety profile and high drug retention rate and a potential advantage of adalimumab over infliximab in terms of ocular inflammation remission, drug retention, and the incidence of severe infusion or injection reactions.

Efficacy and Safety of Adalimumab in Patients with Behçet Uveitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE

To examine the long-term efficacy and safety of adalimumab (ADA) in patients with Behçet uveitis (BU).

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies was performed. Pooled results are presented as mean difference or standardized mean difference (std diff) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Visual acuity (VA), intraocular inflammation grade, central macular thickness, corticosteroid (CS) sparing effect and adverse events were evaluated.

RESULTS

Ten studies were included finally for quantitative and qualitative synthesis. ADA therapy resulted in 0.124 (95%CI: 0.084, 0.165) logMAR improvement in VA. In addition, ADA therapy resulted in decreased grade of intraocular inflammation [std diff, -1.187 (95%CI: -1.508, -0.866)] and macular thickness [std diff, -0.564 (95%CI: -0.843, -0.286)] and caused a decrease in CS dosage [std diff, -1.809 (95%CI: -2.420, -1.198)]. The pooled rate of overall adverse events for ADA in 301 patients was 8.5% (95%CI: 0.039, 0.177).

CONCLUSION

ADA is an efficient therapy that improves VA and controls intraocular inflammation, macular edema and retinal vasculitis. As the disease exposure time increased, improvement in VA was less. The safety and CS-sparing effect of ADA were demonstrated with few adverse effects. The results provided evidence that ADA can be used safely and efficiently as the first-line drug in patients with BU.

Resuming anti-TNF therapy after development of miliary tuberculosis in Behcet's disease-related uveitis: a case report

PURPOSE

There is no consensus concerning restarting anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α therapy for uveitis after treatment for active tuberculosis (TB). We report a case of Behcet disease (BD) in which treatment with TNF inhibitor was successfully resumed after treatment for miliary TB.

CASE REPORT

A 48-year-old Japanese male was treated for uveitis of unknown aetiology in the left eye at a general ophthalmology clinic. He was referred to Department of Ophthalmology, Tokyo Medical University Hospital because of macula oedema (ME) not responding to prednisolone (PSL) 20 mg. BD was diagnosed based on fluorescein angiographic findings of diffuse retinal vasculitis characteristic of BD, recurrent oral aphthous ulcer, erythema nodosum-like rash in his legs, and HLA-A26 positivity. After a screening test, adalimumab (ADA) was started as steroid-sparing therapy. Eight months after starting ADA, the patient was diagnosed with miliary TB. ADA and PSL were discontinued immediately due to TB. Anti-TB treatment was completed after 6 months based on clinical improvement, although T-SPOT.TB was still positive. Infliximab with isoniazid was started due to relapse of ME, worsened vitreous haze, and worsened visual acuity in his left eye. Subsequently, his ocular symptoms subsided and there was no relapse of TB.

CONCLUSION

This case suggests that in patients with BD who have discontinued anti-TNF therapy due to miliary TB, restarting anti-TNF therapy may be a therapeutic option after TB has been treated appropriately with careful monitoring for relapse.

Shaping the Future of Behçet's Uveitis Management: A Comprehensive Review of Efficacy, Challenges, and Prospects of Biologic Therapies

Behçet's uveitis (BU), a vision-threatening manifestation of Behçet's disease, poses substantial management challenges due to its chronic, relapsing nature and potential for vision loss. This review explores the role of biologic therapies in the treatment of BU, providing a comprehensive overview of their effectiveness, drawbacks, and future possibilities. Traditionally, management has relied heavily on corticosteroids and conventional immunosuppressants. However, their long-term use is frequently associated with systemic side effects and insufficient control of ocular inflammation. Biologic therapies, particularly TNF-alpha inhibitors like infliximab and adalimumab, have emerged as effective alternatives, offering better disease control and a more favorable safety profile. We critically evaluated these agents, noting their clinical efficacy in reducing inflammatory flares and preserving visual acuity. Despite their benefits, several issues remain. Accessibility, cost, and lack of long-term safety data limit their widespread use. Additionally, individual variability in treatment response necessitates personalized therapeutic strategies. Recent research has shown promise in addressing these challenges, with the emergence of novel biologic agents and personalized medicine approaches. In summary, biologic therapies represent a paradigm shift in BU management, contributing to better patient outcomes. Yet, there are significant challenges to be overcome. As we move forward, continued research, development of novel biologic agents, and a precision medicine approach will shape the future landscape of BU treatment.

Comparison of infliximab with adalimumab for the treatment of non-infectious uveitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

To compare the efficacy and safety of infliximab with that of adalimumab in the treatment of non-infectious uveitis (NIU).

METHODS

We searched for relevant studies in the PubMed, Embase, ClinicalTrials.gov, Cochrane Library databases, Grey Matters, Grey Literature Report, OpenGrey, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wan Fang databases up to September 2022. The incidences of complete remission of inflammation, response to therapy, adverse events and corticosteroid-sparing effect were evaluated.

RESULTS

Eleven clinical trials covering 1459 NIU patients were included. Complete remission of inflammation after therapy was achieved in 161 (37.5%) patients in the infliximab group and 151 (39.6%) patients in the adalimumab group. These two groups were not significantly different (P = 0.37). Four studies reported response to anti-TNF therapy involving 449 patients, of whom 241/272 (88.6%) treated with infliximab and 153/177 (86.4%) treated with adalimumab achieved partial or complete remission of inflammation. No significant difference was observed between the two cohorts in terms of response to therapy (P = 0.86). There was no significant difference between infliximab and adalimumab with regard to corticosteroid-sparing effect (P = 0.58). The pooled effect size (P = 0.001) showed a statistically significant difference, with the incidence of adverse events being 17.91% for infliximab and 12.12% for adalimumab.

CONCLUSION

Our systematic review and meta-analysis of 11 studies suggests that infliximab and adalimumab have similar therapeutic efficacy and corticosteroid-sparing effect in patients with NIU. However, adalimumab has a marginal advantage over infliximab in terms of adverse events. Large-scale RCTs with a longer follow-up are required to further evaluate these two anti-TNF-α agents in patients with NIU.

Behçet's Disease Uveitis

Uveitis in Behçet's disease (BD) is frequent (40% of cases) and is a major cause of morbidity. The age of onset of uveitis is between 20 and 30 years. Ocular involvement includes anterior, posterior, or panuveitis. Uveitis may be the first sign of the disease in 20% of cases or it may appear 2 or 3 years after the first symptoms. Panuveitis is the most common presentation and is more commonly found in men. Bilateralization usually occurs on average 2 years after the first symptoms. The estimated risk of blindness at 5 years is 10-15%. BD uveitis has several ophthalmological features that distinguish it from other uveitis. The main goals in the management of patients are the rapid resolution of intraocular inflammation, the prevention of recurrent attacks, the achievement of complete remission, and the preservation of vision. Biologic therapies have changed the management of intraocular inflammation. The aim of this review is to provide an update to a previous article by our team on pathogenesis, diagnostic approaches, and the therapeutic strategy of BD uveitis.

Comparing biologic options for the management of Behcet's disease-related uveitis

INTRODUCTION

Behçet's disease (BD) associated uveitis occurs in approximately 50-70% of the patients. Ocular involvement in BD may induce a severe affection of visual function, leading to a considerable decrease in patients' quality of life. The risk for severe visual loss increases when the ocular posterior segment is involved and in patients with no adequate treatment.

AREAS COVERED

Monoclonal tumor necrosis factor (TNF) biotechnological inhibitors represent a relatively recent milestone for the treatment of non-infectious uveitis (NIU) also in BD patients. In addition to TNF inhibitors, further biologic agents have been increasingly proposed for multi-recalcitrant cases, as for interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6 inhibitors. However, evidence on these new opportunities requires to be widened in the next future.

EXPERT OPINION

Joining the forces for scientific efforts is essential to quickly obtain solid acquisitions useful for the everyday clinical practice. To this end, the Auto-Inflammatory Disease Alliance (AIDA) Network has recently supported the development of an international registry dedicated to NIU and other inflammatory ocular involvement observed in BD patients. This will be essential to resolve current and future unmet needs burdening the everyday clinical practice.

Anti-TNF vs tocilizumab in refractory uveitic cystoid macular edema due to Behcet's disease. Multicenter study of 49 patients

OBJECTIVE

To compare the efficacy of TNF inhibitors (adalimumab (ADA) and infliximab (IFX)) vs tocilizumab (TCZ) in patients with refractory cystoid macular edema (CME) due to Behçet's disease (BD).

METHODS

Multicenter study of patients with BD-associated CME refractory to conventional and/or biological immunosuppressive drugs. From a cohort of 177 patients treated with anti-TNF and 14 patients treated with TCZ, we selected those with CME at baseline. We analyzed the evolution of macular thickness (main outcome), best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and intraocular inflammation (Tyndall and vitritis) from baseline up to 4 years in the 3 groups mentioned.

RESULTS

49 patients and 72 eyes with CME were included. ADA was used in 25 patients (40 eyes), IFX in 15 (21 eyes) and TCZ in 9 (11 eyes). No statistically significant baseline differences were observed between the 3 groups except for a lower basal BCVA in TCZ group and a higher basal degree of intraocular inflammation in ADA group. Most patients from all groups had received several conventional immunosuppressive drugs. In addition, most patients in the group of TCZ had also received anti-TNF agents. Biological therapy was used in monotherapy (n=8) or combined with conventional immunosuppressive drugs (n=41). Macular thickness progressively decreased in the 3 groups, with no signs of CME after 1 year of treatment. Similarly, BCVA improvement and inflammatory intraocular remission was achieved in all groups.

CONCLUSION

Refractory CME associated with BD uveitis can be effectively treated either with ADA, IFX or TCZ. Furthermore, TCZ is effective in patients resistant to anti-TNF therapy.

Long-term Experience with Anti-tumor Necrosis factor- α Therapy in the Treatment of Refractory, Non-infectious Intermediate, Posterior, and Panuveitis

PURPOSE

To study the efficacy and long-term effects of infliximab and adalimumab in patients with active refractory non-infectious intermediate, posterior, or panuveitis (NIPPU).

METHODS

Retrospective, longitudinal study.

RESULTS

Included were 61 patients (104 eyes) of whom 34 were males (55.74%). Mean age at diagnosis of uveitis was 26.5 ± 16.14 years. All patients had active uveitis at baseline (time of initiation of biological therapy). Median interval between the start of conventional immunomodulatory therapy (IMT) to the introduction of biological therapy was 13.0 (IQR 26.0) months. Ocular inflammation was effectively controlled in 92 eyes (88.46%). The most commonly used TNF-α inhibitor was adalimumab in 47 patients (77%). Mean follow-up time after baseline was 40 ± 34.08 months. In the year preceding the institution of TNF-α inhibitors, the average number of flares was 1.5 ± 1.1/year and it decreased to 0.08 ± 0.29/year in the first year after baseline (p < .0005). Forty-four eyes (42.30%) experienced flare over the entire follow-up period. Mean time to first flare was 14.5 ± 9.26 months. At baseline, the mean dose of prednisone was 25.5-±20.8 mg/day. A marked decrease to a mean prednisone dose of 7.85 ± 9.7 mg/day was observed at 6 months (p = .03). In patients treated with adalimumab, the mean time to prednisone dose ≤7.5 mg/day was 4.02 ± 4.89 months compared to 15.64 ± 21.34 months in patients treated with infliximab (p = .03). 64.3% of patients treated by infliximab had Behçet uveitis compared to 27.7% of patients treated by adalimumab. Eyes treated with adalimumab experienced first flare at a mean time of 14.11 ± 6.29 months, whereas eyes treated with infliximab experienced first flare at 18.29 ± 14.24 months after baseline (p < .0005). The risk for moderate and severe visual loss was lower with shorter duration of uveitis before initiating anti-TNF-α treatment (odds ratio, 0.003; 95% CI, 0.000-0.005; p = .023), better presenting logMAR VA (odds ratio, 0.266; 95% CI, 0.172-0.361; p < .0005) and when adalimumab was used (odds ratio, 0.354; 95% CI, 0.190-0.519, p < .0005).

CONCLUSIONS

Anti-TNF-α therapy was successful in controlling refractory NIPPU in the majority of cases. It significantly reduced flare rate, exerted steroid-sparing effects, and preserved visual potential. Adalimumab use, better initial visual acuity, and earlier introduction of anti-TNF- α therapy were associated with a lower risk of visual loss.

Anti-tumour necrosis factor-alpha agent therapy, compared with conventional therapy, reduces the relapse of uveitis in patients with behçet’s disease: A systematic review of controlled trials

Purpose: Anti-tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) agents are often used for Behçet’s disease (BD) in clinical practice, but they have not been validated by a high level of evidence. We systematically reviewed published controlled trials to investigate the efficacy and safety of anti-TNF-α therapy and summarize the efficacy of anti-TNF-α therapy relative to the available therapeutic options.

Methods: A systematic database search was conducted (PubMed, Embase and Cochrane) using specific search terms. All controlled studies of anti-TNF-α treatment of BD patients prior to December 2021 were included. Single-arm studies were excluded. The decision of whether to incorporate data into the meta-analysis or summarize the data by qualitative synthesis was based on the results of the literature screening.

Results: Of 4389 screened studies, 13 (total 778 patients) were included in accordance with our retrieval strategy, comprising 1 randomized controlled trial, 1 prospective study, 10 retrospective studies, and 1 multicentre open-label study. Ten studies (76.9%) involved Behçet’s uveitis (BU), 1 involved intestinal BD, and the other studies had undefined subtypes. Subgroup reviews were conducted according to the control drug. Four studies involving 167 participants reported relapse rates. Meta-analysis of three of these studies demonstrated that, compared with traditional immunosuppressant (TIS) therapy, anti-TNF-α therapy reduced the relapse rates in patients with BU. In targeted drug comparison studies, the efficacy appeared to be similar between the anti-TNF-α agent and interferon in BU patients. The rates of adverse events were comparable between a variety of different therapeutic controls. Serious adverse events were not observed in 53.8% (7/13) of the studies.

Conclusions: Compared with TIS therapy, anti-TNF-a therapy reduces the relapse of uveitis in patients with BD. However, the evidence regarding anti-TNF-α therapy is very limited for the full spectrum of BD subtypes, which calls for caution.

Long-term Efficacy of TNF-alpha Inhibitors on Persistent Uveitic Macular Edema: A Swiss Multicenter Cohort Study

PURPOSE

To assess the efficacy of tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibitors (TNFi) on uveitic macular edema (ME) unresponsive to conventional synthetic disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (csDMARDs).

METHODS

This multicenter retrospective study included patients with uveitic ME persisting despite csDMARDs. The effect of an additional TNFi on central retinal thickness (CRT), best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and corticosteroid need was evaluated.

RESULTS

Thirty-five eyes (26 patients, mean age 42.9 ± 15.2 years) were included. CRT decreased from 425 ± 137 µm to 294 ± 66 µm (p < .001) and 280 ± 48 µm (p < .001) at 1 and 4 years of follow-up, respectively. BCVA improved from 0.28 ± 0.22 to 0.21 ± 0.48 (1 year, p = .013) and 0.08 ± 0.13 logMAR (4 years, p = .002). The proportion of patients requiring systemic corticosteroids decreased from 88.5% to 34.8% (1 year) and 15.4% (4 years).

CONCLUSION

The addition of a TNFi resulted in an improvement of CRT and BCVA for up to 4 years in uveitic ME but rescue treatments were needed for some patients.

Long-Term Safety and Effectiveness of Adalimumab in Japanese Patients with Noninfectious Intermediate, Posterior, or Panuveitis: Post-Marketing Surveillance of 251 Patients

Introduction

The aim of this nationwide, prospective post-marketing surveillance was to assess the safety and effectiveness of up to 52 weeks of adalimumab treatment in patients with noninfectious intermediate, posterior, or panuveitis in Japanese clinical practice.

Methods

This post-marketing surveillance was conducted at 60 medical facilities in Japan from October 2016 to June 2020. Patients with noninfectious intermediate, posterior, or panuveitis who were administered adalimumab (Humira^®, AbbVie Inc.) for the first time were eligible. Subcutaneous adalimumab was initially administered at 80 mg, followed by 40 mg 1 week later, then 40 mg every 2 weeks. Safety measures included the incidence of adverse events (AEs) and adverse drug reactions (ADRs; primary endpoint). Effectiveness measures included visual acuity, anterior chamber cell grade, vitreous haze, macular edema, foveal retinal thickness, uveitis recurrence rate, and oral corticosteroid dose. Health-related quality of life was evaluated using the 25-item National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire (VFQ-25).

Results

During 52 weeks of surveillance, AEs and ADRs occurred in 70 (27.9%) and 47 (18.7%) of 251 patients, respectively. The most common ADR was infection (21/251 patients; 8.4%), including serious infections in eight (3.2%) patients. ADRs were more frequent in patients ≥ 65 years of age, those with concurrent diseases, and those with past medical history. Four patients developed tuberculosis. The uveitis recurrence rate was 24.8% (61/246 patients). All effectiveness measures tended to improve from baseline to week 52, and mean corticosteroid doses decreased. Clinically meaningful changes were observed for most VFQ-25 subscales.

Conclusions

The safety profile of adalimumab was generally consistent with previous reports, and no new safety concerns were identified.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02916017.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40123-022-00493-z.

Increased vitreous levels of B cell activation factor (BAFF) and soluble interleukin-6 receptor in patients with macular edema due to uveitis related to Behçet's disease and sarcoidosis

PURPOSE

Uveitis accounts for 10-15% of all cases of blindness in the developed world. Uveitic macular edema (UME) is a primary cause of permanent visual impairment in patients with uveitis. Because proinflammatory mediators elicit inflammation and lead to UME, we determined the profiles of proinflammatory mediators associated with complications, such as ME, in the vitreous humor of patients with panuveitis related to Behçet's disease (BD) and sarcoidosis.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, we enrolled 21 patients with uveitis, including 6 with BD and 15 with sarcoidosis, and 15 patients with idiopathic epiretinal membrane (iERM) at the Department of Ophthalmology, Kyushu University Hospital, between January 2008 and April 2016. Vitreous concentrations of 32 proinflammatory mediators, including cytokines and soluble receptors of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin (IL)-6 families, were assessed using a bead-based multiplex assay and their association with clinical data was examined.

RESULTS

The levels of proinflammatory mediators, including a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL), B cell activating factor belonging to the TNF family (BAFF), soluble cluster of differentiation 30 (sCD30), soluble TNF receptor-1 (sTNFR1), sTNFR2, TNF-α, IL-6, and soluble IL-6 receptor-α (sIL-6Rα), were significantly higher in patients with uveitis. With regard to clinical parameters in patients with uveitis, vitreous levels of BAFF and sIL-6Rα were prominently elevated in patients with UME compared to in those without UME (P < 0.01, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that elevated vitreous levels of BAFF and sIL-6Rα are associated with the pathogenesis of UME in patients with panuveitis related to BD and sarcoidosis.

Visual outcomes and choroidal thickness associated with human leukocyte antigen DRB1*04 in unclassifiable uveitis in Japanese patients

Purpose

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and immunity are related. Uveitis is also closely related to immunity. For example, the common presence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DRB1*04 in the immune response is well known. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between visual prognosis and various HLA alleles before and after therapy in patients with unclassifiable uveitis, excluding those with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada (VKH) disease.

Methods

This retrospective case series included 42 eyes from 22 consecutive patients with unclassifiable uveitis, excluding those with VKH disease. Visual acuity (VA), sex, refractive error, central retinal thickness (CRT), central choroidal thickness (CCT), and duration from onset to treatment were measured at initial and 6-month visits. Mean values of parameters were compared at each visit. Genotyping was performed by polymerase chain reaction amplification with sequence-specific primers.

Results

DRB1*04 showed a dominant change. No significant difference was observed in the other alleles. In DRB1*04, The mean differences in initial CCT, 6-month CCT, and 6-month VA showed statistically significant difference was found in best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) between DRB1*04+ and DRB1*04− at the first visit. BCVA values at baseline and at the final visit were 0.13 ± 0.29 and 0.20 ± 0.36 in the DRB1*04+ and 0.00045 ± 0.20 and − 0.058 ± 0.11 in the DRB1*04− groups(p = 0.00465). Central Choroidal Thickness (CCT) values pretreatment and at the final visit after treatment were (pretreatment:361.00 ± 361.0 μm,after treatment: 286.00 ± 106.53 μm, p = 0.0174) in the DRB1*04+ group, and (pretreatment:281.3 ± 139.68 μm,after treatment:223.85 ± 99.034 μm, p = 0.0426) in the DRB1*04− group, respectively, indicating changes between baseline and the final visit. CCT was significantly greater in the DRB1*04+ group at both the initial visit and at 6 months. Multivariate analysis showed a significant difference between the presence or absence of DRB1*04 and sex.

Conclusion

HLA-DRB1*04 allele may affect visual prognosis and CCT in unclassifiable uveitis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12886-021-02222-9.

Toxoplasma gondii in humans and animals in Japan: An epidemiological overview

Toxoplasmosis is a cosmopolitan protozoan zoonosis caused by Toxoplasma gondii infamous for inducing severe clinical manifestations in humans. Although the disease affects at least one billion people worldwide, it is neglected in many countries including developed ones. In literature, the epidemiological data documenting the actual incidence of the disease in humans and domestic animals from Japan are limited and importantly many earlier papers on T. gondii infections were published in Japanese and a considerable part is not available online. Herein, we review the current summary about the epidemiological situation of T. gondii infection in Japan and the potential associated risk factors in humans and animals as well as the different T. gondii genotypes isolated in Japan. Several T. gondii isolates have been identified among cats (TgCatJpTy1/k-3, TgCatJpGi1/TaJ, TgCatJpObi1 and TgCatJpOk1-4) and goats (TgGoatJpOk1-13). This literature review underscores the need for a nationwide investigation of T. gondii infection in Japanese people and assessment of the socioeconomic impact of the disease burden. Furthermore, epidemiological studies in domestic and wild animals and estimation of degree of contamination of soil or water with T. gondii oocysts are needed, for a better understanding of the scope of this public health concern.

Methotrexate Effectively Controls Ocular Inflammation in Japanese Patients With Non-infectious Uveitis

This single-center retrospective study investigated the clinical characteristics and efficacy of methotrexate (MTX) for the treatment of non-infectious uveitis for more than 6 months at Hiroshima University, from February 2016 to May 2021. Outcome variables included changes in systemic immunosuppressive treatment and intraocular inflammation. Out of 448 patients with non-infectious uveitis, 35 patients (14 male patients and 21 female patients; 65 eyes) treated with MTX for more than 6 months were analyzed. There were 15 patients with anterior uveitis and 20 with posterior and panuveitis. The mean dose of systemic corticosteroids decreased from 12.1 mg/day at baseline to 1.3 mg/day at 6 months and 0.6 mg at 12 months after starting MTX, and approximately 90% of patients were corticosteroid-free at 12 months. The percentage of eyes with inactive uveitis at 6, 12, and 24 months was 49.2%, 59.6%, and 90.0%, respectively. Mean relapse rate score also significantly decreased from 2.88 at baseline to 0.85 at 12 months (p < 0.001). Inflammatory control was achieved with MTX doses of 8-16 mg/week, with a median dose of 12 mg/week. Adverse effects of MTX were observed in 34.3% of patients, and 11.4% required discontinuation; most commonly hepatotoxicity (58.3%), followed by fatigue (25.0%), and hair loss (16.7%). No significant differences were found between the survival curves of patients with anterior uveitis and posterior/panuveitis (Wilcoxon rank-sum test). The percentage of eyes without IOP-lowering eye drops was significantly higher in patients with posterior/panuveitis at 24 months (p = 0.001). Our study suggests that MTX is effective in controlling ocular inflammation for Japanese patients with non-infectious uveitis. Relatively high incidence of MTX-related adverse effects in the Japanese population indicates that careful monitoring and dose adjustments are crucial for the long-term use of this therapy.

A Contemporary Review of Behcet's Syndrome

Behcet's syndrome (BS) is a chronic systemic inflammatory vasculitis with a wide range of clinical manifestations including recurrent oral and genital ulcers; cutaneous lesions; and ophthalmic, neurologic, and gastrointestinal involvement. BS has a global distribution but is particularly prevalent in so-called Silk Road populations. Disease onset is usually around the third or fourth decade of life, and the sex ratio is roughly 1:1. Both environmental and genetic factors contribute to the etiology of BS, although the detailed mechanisms remain unclear. At present, there is no laboratory examination with diagnostic value for BS; therefore, a diagnosis is made based on clinical manifestations. The International Study Group diagnostic criteria published in 1990 is the most widely used and recognized, but in order to improve sensitivity, the International Criteria for Behcet's Disease is developed in 2014. Evaluating disease activity in BS is an important basis for treatment selection and monitoring, the simplified Behcet's Disease Current Activity Form (2006 version) is a well-established scoring method. Given that multiple organs are affected in BS, it must be differentiated from other diseases with similar manifestations or that may be induced by drug treatment. The goal of BS treatment is to eradicate triggers and/or aggravating factors, alleviate and control clinical symptoms, prevent and treat any damage to organs, slow disease progression, and improve the patient's quality of life. The clinical management of BS depends on the affected organs and disease severity. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge of BS pathogenesis and therapeutic options.

Old and New Challenges in Uveitis Associated with Behçet's Disease

Behçet’s disease (BD) is a systemic vasculitis disease of unknown origin occurring in young people, which can be venous, arterial or both, classically occlusive. Ocular involvement is particularly frequent and severe; vascular occlusion secondary to retinal vasculitis may lead to rapid and severe loss of vision. Biologics have transformed the management of intraocular inflammation. However, the diagnosis of BD is still a major challenge. In the absence of a reliable biological marker, diagnosis is based on clinical diagnostic criteria and may be delayed after the appearance of the onset sign. However, therapeutic management of BD needs to be introduced early in order to control inflammation, to preserve visual function and to limit irreversible structural damage. The aim of this review is to provide current data on how innovations in clinical evaluation, investigations and treatments were able to improve the prognosis of uveitis associated with BD.

Advances in the Treatment of Behcet's Disease

Purpose of Review

To assess current management of Behcet’s disease (BD). Controversies on therapeutic approaches to different manifestations, whether conventional immunosuppressives (IS) or biologic agents, should be chosen, and options for refractory disease are discussed.

Recent Findings

Glucocorticoids are still the main agents for remission-induction and azathioprine the first-line conventional IS in maintenance phase to prevent relapses of major organ involvement. Apremilast is shown to be a safe and effective option approved by the FDA for oral ulcers. Large case series confirmed the efficacy and safety of TNFα inhibitors and Interferon-α. Promising results are observed with IL-1 inhibitors, ustekinumab, secukinumab, and tocilizumab for refractory BD.

Summary

Although both conventional IS and biologic agents are effectively used to suppress inflammation in BD, there is still an unmet need for clear therapeutic strategies in the management for different manifestations. Further controlled studies with new biologic agents, anticoagulants and the benefit of concomitant IS usage with biologics are needed to optimize the management of BD.