The effectiveness of cannabis crop eradication operations in New Zealand

Organized Crime in Cannabis Cultivation in New Zealand: An Economic Analysis

This paper draws on the emerging economic theory of organized crime to investigate the role organized criminal gangs play in outdoor illicit cannabis cultivation in New Zealand. Organized criminal groups are most likely to control illicit markets where there are cost advantages from larger-scale production, the need for specialized skills, capital equipment or large amounts of startup capital, and visible targets for violence aimed at discouraging competition. Examination of the illicit production of cannabis suggests the productivity gains that could be achieved from larger-scale cannabis cultivation are undermined by the difficulties of monitoring crops, the vulnerability of crops to ground and aerial detection, and legal penalties based on size of crop. The effectiveness of violence in discouraging competition in cannabis cultivation is constrained by the difficulties of identifying rival cultivators and discovering the location of rivals’ cannabis plots. Several reasons are put forward to explain why the New Zealand police nevertheless claim that cannabis cultivation in New Zealand is controlled by gangs.

The Changing Pattern of Domestic Cannabis Cultivation in the United Kingdom and Its Impact on the Cannabis Market

With improvements in both technology and information, cannabis is being increasingly grown indoors for domestic use rather than being imported. This study examines 50 cannabis farms detected by an English police force and examines the characteristics of the 61 suspects associated with them. The study highlights a U.K. pattern in domestic cultivation, which is moving away from large-scale commercial cultivation, at times coordinated by Southeast Asian organized crime groups, to increased cultivation within residential premises by British citizens. Offenders range from those who have no prior criminal history to those who are serious and persistent offenders. The ramifications for law enforcement agencies and policy formers are discussed.

Small Scale Domestic Cannabis Cultivation: An Anonymous Web Survey among 659 Cannabis Cultivators in Belgium

The shift to (inter)regional production, trade, and domestic cultivation has become an irreversible international trend. Until now, the focus of most empirical work has been on large-scale, commercially-oriented and professionally-organized segments of the cannabis industry, often based on police data and on the perspective of law enforcement agencies. This article presents some significant findings from a large-scale study on a less visible and less studied segment of the market, i.e. small-scale cultivators, based on an anonymous web survey among 659 cannabis cultivators. The article discusses the patterns of cultivation, some technical aspects of growing operations, (dis)advantages of cannabis cultivation, and perceived quality and strength of homegrown cannabis. The author argues that small-scale or amateur home growers constitute a significant segment of the cannabis market, both in a quantitative and in a qualitative perspective, and points to important differences between this sample obtained online and those obtained through traditional methods in other studies.

Patterns of Youth Participation in Cannabis Cultivation

The current study examines the patterns of youth participation in cannabis cultivation by developing a typology among a sample of young offenders (n=175) in a rural region of Quebec, Canada known for its extensive outdoor cultivation industry. A hierarchical cluster analysis approach is used to group participants on various dimensions: motivation, substance use, delinquency and type of participation in cannabis cultivation. We also explore the role that criminal networks have in structuring the nature of youth involvement in the cultivation industry. Two general categories of participants emerged: participants for which cultivation is mainly a money generating activity (Entrepreneurs and Generalists), and participants who grow for personal use and intangible rewards (Hobbyists). Further, we found another group, the “helpers”, who qualify as “participants” to the cultivation industry, but not as “growers” per se. For generalists, participation to the cultivation industry is found among a portfolio of other crimes, while entrepreneurs tend to specialize in cultivation and are rewarded by achieving a higher level of success. Our results also suggest a correlation between the intensity of involvement in cultivation and the size of a youth's criminal network.

Convenient labour: the prevalence and nature of youth involvement in the cannabis cultivation industry

BACKGROUND

The emergence of cannabis cultivation in industrialised countries may offer adolescents, especially those living in regions suitable for outdoor cultivation, new opportunities to participate in the drug trade. The current study examines the prevalence and the nature of youth involvement in cannabis cultivation in an important agricultural region of Quebec, Canada.

METHODS

A self-report delinquency survey was administered to 1262 adolescents between 13 and 17 years who were attending one of four secondary schools in that region. The study location was not chosen arbitrarily. The region was known for having a larger than average outdoor cannabis industry, and various media reports suggested that a substantial number of students missed school days during the cannabis harvest season, in October.

RESULTS

A first set of findings show that 12% of respondents reported having participated in the cannabis cultivation industry in the past year. Such a prevalence rate is higher than for any other type of crime found in the survey (except for the general category of mischief)--including assault and theft, and is comparable to the prevalence rates found for drug dealing. Such a high prevalence rate comes in part out of need for labour in this low population density region: 35% of respondents who reported having participated in the industry in the past year, were "labourers", while many others only participated in small sites, destined for personal use. Another set of findings suggest that growers are a very diverse group: although cultivation is the most prevalent money-generating crime for gang members in the region, girls and otherwise conventional adolescents are also involved in high numbers.

CONCLUSION

These results emphasise the need to design policies that concern not just the prevention of drug use among youth, but also youth involvement in the supply of drugs. In addition, it underlines the difficulty of planning general interventions in what appears to be a very heterogeneous population of growers.

Measuring the Cannabis Market in Finland—A Consumption-Based Estimate

According to a frequently voiced opinion drug seizures represent 5 to 10 percent of drug traded in the market. In this article we estimate the size of the Finnish cannabis trade by calculating the number of users and the amount of the substance consumed in a year. We divide the subjects into five different groups based on the annual frequency of use: experimenters (1–4 days), modest occasional users (5–12 days), frequent occasional users (13–51 days), weekly users (52–181 days) and, finally, daily users (182–365 days).

The highest number of users was found in the group of modest occasional users, while daily users were accountable for the greatest share of total consumption. According to our calculations the amount of seized cannabis corresponds to 10–23 percent of the total amount on the market which means that authorities operate more effectively than what is generally believed.

Towards a Realistic Method to Estimate Cannabis Production in Industrialized Countries

Among the many difficulties with estimating the size of the cannabis industry is that suitable methodologies for estimating large-scale outdoor illegal drug production in developing countries cannot be used to estimate indoor production in industrialized countries. This article proposes a new approach that overcomes some of these difficulties. The case study is a mature cannabis cultivation industry, located in the province Quebec, Canada. Starting from capture-recapture estimates of the prevalence of growers, the approach combines police and fieldwork data sources on the dynamics of the cultivation industry to correct for typical errors in the assumed productivity rates of different kinds of cultivation sites. Using three different approaches to productivity (ounces-per-plant, yield-per-lamp, yield-per-watt) it was estimated that Quebec cannabis production was approximately 300 tons in 2002; 11% was seized by the police, 33% was consumed within the province, and 56% was potentially exported to the U.S. and to other Canadian provinces.

Individual dollar expenditure and earnings from cannabis in the New Zealand population

INTRODUCTION

: High spending on illegal drug use can potentially provide insight into a range of drug related harm such as poor health, financial hardship, loss of opportunity, family neglect and income generating crime. Assessing the impact of high spending on drug use is complicated by the fact that many heavy drug users support their high expenditure on drug use through selling drugs. The aim of this paper is to estimate individual dollar expenditure and dollar earnings from cannabis in New Zealand.

METHODS

: As part of the 2003 New Zealand national household drug survey, detailed data were collected on cannabis use and purchasing in the previous 12 months. Those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year were divided into two groups for further analysis: 'cannabis buyers' (i.e. those who only purchased sufficient cannabis for their own personal consumption needs); and 'cannabis dealers' (i.e. those who purchased large surpluses of cannabis for re-sale on to others).

RESULTS

: Seventy-two percent of those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year were 'cannabis buyers' only. Cannabis buyers spent a mean of $817 (NZD) each on cannabis in the previous year (median $120). Cannabis dealers spent a mean of $5988 each on cannabis in the preceding year (median $1250). Once we accounted for projected earnings from selling surplus cannabis, half of the cannabis dealers achieved a mean net annual financial gain of $2739, and the remaining half were left with a mean net annual financial loss of only $350 over a year. Overall, 81% of all those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year had spent less than 5% of their gross annual personal income on cannabis, with 14% of these making a net financial gain. The proportion of income spent on cannabis was highest among those in the two lowest income earning groups, where approximately 8% spent 20% or more of their income on cannabis. Both cannabis buyers and cannabis dealers spending 10% or more of their income on cannabis were four times more likely to be unemployed than the wider population.

CONCLUSIONS

: For the vast majority of those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year, spending on cannabis had only a small impact on their total annual income levels. High spending on cannabis can potentially be substantially offset by earnings from selling surplus cannabis. High spending on cannabis had its greatest impact among low income earning groups where approximately one in 13 low income cannabis spenders were spending high proportions of their income on cannabis. There appeared to be some relationship between high cannabis spending and unemployment and this warrants further investigation.