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Opitz A, Petasch MS, Klappauf R, Kirschgens J, Hinz J, Dittmann L, Dathe AS, Quednow BB, Beste C, Stock AK. Does chronic use of amphetamine-type stimulants impair interference control? - A meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 146:105020. [PMID: 36581170 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.105020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In substance use and addiction, inhibitory control is key to ignoring triggers, withstanding craving and maintaining abstinence. In amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) users, most research focused on behavioral inhibition, but largely neglected the equally important subdomain of cognitive interference control. Given its crucial role in managing consumption, we investigated the relationship between interference control and chronic ATS use in adults. A database search (Pubmed & Web of Science) and relevant reviews were used to identify eligible studies. Effect sizes were estimated with random effects models. Subgroup, meta-regression, and sensitivity analyses explored heterogeneity in effect sizes. We identified 61 studies (53 datasets) assessing interference control in 1873 ATS users and 1905 controls. Findings revealed robust small effect sizes for ATS-related deficits in interference control, which were mainly seen in methamphetamine, as compared to MDMA users. The differential effects are likely due to tolerance-induced dopaminergic deficiencies (presumably most pronounced in methamphetamine users). Similarities between different ATS could be due to noradrenergic deficiencies; but elucidating their functional role in ATS users requires further/more research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antje Opitz
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Germany
| | - Miriam-Sophie Petasch
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Germany
| | - Regine Klappauf
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Germany
| | - Josephine Kirschgens
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Germany
| | - Julian Hinz
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Germany
| | - Lena Dittmann
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anthea S Dathe
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Germany
| | - Boris B Quednow
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland; Biopsychology, Department of Psychology, School of Science, TU Dresden, Germany
| | - Christian Beste
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Germany
| | - Ann-Kathrin Stock
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Germany; Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
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Jamt REG, Edvardsen HME, Middelkoop G, Kallevik AS, Bogstrand ST, Vevelstad MS, Vindenes V. Deaths associated with MDMA in the period 2000–2019. TIDSSKRIFT FOR DEN NORSKE LEGEFORENING 2022; 142:21-0547. [DOI: 10.4045/tidsskr.21.0547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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3
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Guimarães dos Santos R. Safety and Side Effects of Ayahuasca in Humans—An Overview Focusing on Developmental Toxicology. J Psychoactive Drugs 2013; 45:68-78. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2013.763564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Becker B, Wagner D, Koester P, Bender K, Kabbasch C, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J. Memory-related hippocampal functioning in ecstasy and amphetamine users: a prospective fMRI study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 225:923-34. [PMID: 23001254 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2873-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recreational use of ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA]) has been associated with memory impairments. Functional neuroimaging studies with cross-sectional designs reported altered memory-related hippocampal functioning in ecstasy-polydrug users. However, differences might be pre-existing or related to the concomitant use of amphetamine. OBJECTIVE To prospectively investigate the specific effects of ecstasy on memory-related hippocampal functioning. METHODS We used an associative memory task and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in 40 ecstasy and/or amphetamine users at baseline (t1) and after 12 months (t2). At t1, all subjects had very limited amphetamine and/or ecstasy experience (less than 5 units lifetime dose). Based on the reported drug use at t2, subjects with continued ecstasy and/or amphetamine use (n = 17) were compared to subjects who stopped use after t1 (n = 12). RESULTS Analysis of repeated measures revealed that encoding-related activity in the left parahippocampal gyrus changed differentially between the groups. Activity in this region increased in abstinent subjects from t1 to t2, however, decreased in subjects with continued use. Decreases within the left parahippocampal gyrus were associated with the use of ecstasy, but not amphetamine, during the follow-up period. However, there were no significant differences in memory performance. CONCLUSIONS The current findings suggest specific effects of ecstasy use on memory-related hippocampal functioning. However, alternative explanations such as (sub-)acute cannabis effects are conceivable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Becker
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 62, 50924 Cologne, Germany.
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Kirkpatrick MG, Gunderson EW, Perez AY, Haney M, Foltin RW, Hart CL. A direct comparison of the behavioral and physiological effects of methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 219:109-22. [PMID: 21713605 PMCID: PMC4430833 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2383-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Accepted: 06/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Despite their chemical similarities, methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) produce differing neurochemical and behavioral responses in animals. In humans, individual studies of methamphetamine and MDMA indicate that the drugs engender overlapping and divergent effects; there are only limited data comparing the two drugs in the same individuals. OBJECTIVES This study examined the effects of methamphetamine and MDMA using a within-subject design. METHODS Eleven adult volunteers completed this 13-day residential laboratory study, which consisted of four 3-day blocks of sessions. On the first day of each block, participants received oral methamphetamine (20, 40 mg), MDMA (100 mg), or placebo. Drug plasma concentrations, cardiovascular, subjective, and cognitive/psychomotor performance effects were assessed before drug administration and after. Food intake and sleep were also assessed. On subsequent days of each block, placebo was administered and residual effects were assessed. RESULTS Acutely, both drugs increased cardiovascular measures and "positive" subjective effects and decreased food intake. In addition, when asked to identify each drug, participants had difficulty distinguishing between the amphetamines. The drugs also produced divergent effects: methamphetamine improved performance and disrupted sleep, while MDMA increased "negative" subjective-effect ratings. Few residual drug effects were noted for either drug. CONCLUSIONS It is possible that the differences observed could explain the differential public perception and abuse potential associated with these amphetamines. Alternatively, the route of administration by which the drugs are used recreationally might account for the many of the effects attributed to these drugs (i.e., MDMA is primarily used orally, whereas methamphetamine is used by routes associated with higher abuse potential).
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew G. Kirkpatrick
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Division on Substance Abuse, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Erik W. Gunderson
- Division on Substance Abuse, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Audrey Y. Perez
- Division on Substance Abuse, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Margaret Haney
- Division on Substance Abuse, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Richard W. Foltin
- Division on Substance Abuse, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Carl L. Hart
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Division on Substance Abuse, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., Unit 120, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Martins J, Castelo-Branco M, Batista A, Oliveiros B, Santiago AR, Galvão J, Fernandes E, Carvalho F, Cavadas C, Ambrósio AF. Effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine administration on retinal physiology in the rat. PLoS One 2011; 6:e29583. [PMID: 22216322 PMCID: PMC3246479 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) is known to produce euphoric states, but may also cause adverse consequences in humans, such as hyperthermia and neurocognitive deficits. Although MDMA consumption has been associated with visual problems, the effects of this recreational drug in retinal physiology have not been addressed hitherto. In this work, we evaluated the effect of a single MDMA administration in the rat electroretinogram (ERG). Wistar rats were administered MDMA (15 mg/kg) or saline and ERGs were recorded before (Baseline ERG), and 3 h, 24 h, and 7 days after treatment. A high temperature (HT) saline-treated control group was also included. Overall, significantly augmented and shorter latency ERG responses were found in MDMA and HT groups 3 h after treatment when compared to Baseline. Twenty-four hours after treatment some of the alterations found at 3 h, mainly characterized by shorter latency, tended to return to Baseline values. However, MDMA-treated animals still presented increased scotopic a-wave and b-wave amplitudes compared to Baseline ERGs, which were independent of temperature elevation though the latter might underlie the acute ERG alterations observed 3 h after MDMA administration. Seven days after MDMA administration recovery from these effects had occurred. The effects seem to stem from specific changes observed at the a-wave level, which indicates that MDMA affects subacutely (at 24 h) retinal physiology at the outer retinal (photoreceptor/bipolar) layers. In conclusion, we have found direct evidence that MDMA causes subacute enhancement of the outer retinal responses (most prominent in the a-wave), though ERG alterations resume within one week. These changes in photoreceptor/bipolar cell physiology may have implications for the understanding of the subacute visual manifestations induced by MDMA in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Martins
- Centre of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, IBILI, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel Castelo-Branco
- Centre of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, IBILI, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Batista
- Centre of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, IBILI, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Bárbara Oliveiros
- Centre of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, IBILI, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Raquel Santiago
- Centre of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, IBILI, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Joana Galvão
- Centre of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, IBILI, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Eduarda Fernandes
- REQUIMTE - Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- REQUIMTE - Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Cláudia Cavadas
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - António F. Ambrósio
- Centre of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, IBILI, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- AIBILI, Coimbra, Portugal
- * E-mail:
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Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'Ecstasy'): Neurodegeneration versus Neuromodulation. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2011. [PMCID: PMC4058674 DOI: 10.3390/ph4070992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The amphetamine analogue 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’) is widely abused as a recreational drug due to its unique psychological effects. Of interest, MDMA causes long-lasting deficits in neurochemical and histological markers of the serotonergic neurons in the brain of different animal species. Such deficits include the decline in the activity of tryptophan hydroxylase in parallel with the loss of 5-HT and its main metabolite 5-hydoxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) along with a lower binding of specific ligands to the 5-HT transporters (SERT). Of concern, reduced 5-HIAA levels in the CSF and SERT density have also been reported in human ecstasy users, what has been interpreted to reflect the loss of serotonergic fibers and terminals. The neurotoxic potential of MDMA has been questioned in recent years based on studies that failed to show the loss of the SERT protein by western blot or the lack of reactive astrogliosis after MDMA exposure. In addition, MDMA produces a long-lasting down-regulation of SERT gene expression; which, on the whole, has been used to invoke neuromodulatory mechanisms as an explanation to MDMA-induced 5-HT deficits. While decreased protein levels do not necessarily reflect neurodegeneration, the opposite is also true, that is, neuroregulatory mechanisms do not preclude the existence of 5-HT terminal degeneration.
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Halpern JH, Sherwood AR, Hudson JI, Gruber S, Kozin D, Pope HG. Residual neurocognitive features of long-term ecstasy users with minimal exposure to other drugs. Addiction 2011; 106:777-86. [PMID: 21205042 PMCID: PMC3053129 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03252.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS In field studies assessing cognitive function in illicit ecstasy users, there are several frequent confounding factors that might plausibly bias the findings toward an overestimate of ecstasy-induced neurocognitive toxicity. We designed an investigation seeking to minimize these possible sources of bias. DESIGN We compared illicit ecstasy users and non-users while (1) excluding individuals with significant life-time exposure to other illicit drugs or alcohol; (2) requiring that all participants be members of the 'rave' subculture; and (3) testing all participants with breath, urine and hair samples at the time of evaluation to exclude possible surreptitious substance use. We compared groups with adjustment for age, gender, race/ethnicity, family-of-origin variables and childhood history of conduct disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. We provide significance levels without correction for multiple comparisons. SETTING Field study. PARTICIPANTS Fifty-two illicit ecstasy users and 59 non-users, aged 18-45 years. MEASUREMENTS Battery of 15 neuropsychological tests tapping a range of cognitive functions. FINDINGS We found little evidence of decreased cognitive performance in ecstasy users, save for poorer strategic self-regulation, possibly reflecting increased impulsivity. However, this finding might have reflected a pre-morbid attribute of ecstasy users, rather than a residual neurotoxic effect of the drug. CONCLUSIONS In a study designed to minimize limitations found in many prior investigations, we failed to demonstrate marked residual cognitive effects in ecstasy users. This finding contrasts with many previous findings-including our own-and emphasizes the need for continued caution in interpreting field studies of cognitive function in illicit ecstasy users.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H. Halpern
- Laboratory for Integrative Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - James I. Hudson
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Staci Gruber
- Cognitive and Clinical Neuroimaging Core Brain Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David Kozin
- Laboratory for Integrative Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Harrison G. Pope
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Lyvers M. Commentary on Halpern et al. (2011): strengthening the case against functionally significant serotonergic neurotoxicity in human MDMA (ecstasy) users. Addiction 2011; 106:787-8. [PMID: 21371152 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03344.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Lyvers
- Department of Psychology, Bond University, Gold Coast, QLD 4229, Australia.
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Gagnon V, Fallu JS, Brière FN, Janosz M. [Initiation of ecstasy use in Québec senior high school adolescents: distal and proximal predictors]. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHIATRIE 2011; 56:62-70. [PMID: 21324244 DOI: 10.1177/070674371105600110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify distal and proximal predictors of ecstasy use initiation during adolescence. METHOD The sample included 2162 adolescents from Québec disadvantaged community high schools, with an annual follow-up for 5 years. Path analysis was used to predict ecstasy use initiation in secondary 5 (aged 16 to 17 years) from predictors in secondary 1 and 2 (aged 12 to 14 years) and in secondary 4 (aged 15 to 16 years). RESULTS Secondary 5 adolescents initiating ecstasy use showed a higher risk on multiple factors, compared with nonusers. Initiation was mainly predicted by proximal risk factors related to individual use as well as peer use and deviance. Nevertheless, many proximal factors developed consistently with their corresponding distal factor (indirect link). Marijuana use was the strongest predictor of ecstasy use initiation. All things being equal, relative risk was 2.04 times higher in adolescents having used marijuana in the past year (secondary 4). CONCLUSIONS Ecstasy use initiation in secondary 5 seems to be globally related to an externalized, rather than internalized, profile. This ecstasy use was strongly associated with other substance use and likely shares many risk factors with other substance use, specifically marijuana use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Gagnon
- Département de psychologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec
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11
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dos Santos RG. Toxicity of chronic ayahuasca administration to the pregnant rat: how relevant it is regarding the human, ritual use of ayahuasca? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 89:533-5; author reply 531-2.. [DOI: 10.1002/bdrb.20272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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12
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Seger D. Cocaine, metamfetamine, and MDMA abuse: the role and clinical importance of neuroadaptation. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2010; 48:695-708. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2010.516263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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13
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Plaza-Zabala A, Berrendero F, Suarez J, Bermudez-Silva FJ, Fernandez-Espejo E, Serrano A, Pavon FJ, Parsons LH, De Fonseca FR, Maldonado R, Robledo P. Effects of the endogenous PPAR-α agonist, oleoylethanolamide on MDMA-induced cognitive deficits in mice. Synapse 2010; 64:379-89. [DOI: 10.1002/syn.20733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Piechatzek M, Indlekofer F, Daamen M, Glasmacher C, Lieb R, Pfister H, Tucha O, Lange KW, Wittchen HU, Schütz CG. Is moderate substance use associated with altered executive functioning in a population-based sample of young adults? Hum Psychopharmacol 2009; 24:650-65. [PMID: 19946940 DOI: 10.1002/hup.1069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Substance use (SU) has been linked with impaired cognitive functioning. Evidence comes mainly from clinical studies or studies examining heavy users. Though, the majority of users are not involved in heavy use. This study investigates the association between moderate use and cognition in a population-based sample. METHODS A total of 284 young adults with ecstasy, cannabis or alcohol use and a control group were sampled from the EDSP database for participation in the Munich Assessment of Young Adults (MAYA) study. Subjects completed a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests (executive functions, working memory and impulsivity). Multiple linear regression models were conducted to examine the relationship between use and cognitive performance. RESULTS Increased ecstasy consumption was associated with increased error-proneness (Stroop task, CANTAB ID/ED-shift, spatial working memory). More frequent cannabis use and more extensive alcohol consumption were associated with a higher degree of impulsiveness. CONCLUSIONS Based on mild to moderate SU, little indication of differences in executive functioning was found. For ecstasy use, an increased error-proneness was revealed. The subtle differences in relatively young individuals warrant further investigation in prospective long-term studies to identify subjects at risk, and to examine effects of prolonged patterns of use on executive functioning.
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de Almeida SP, Garcia-Mijares M, Silva MTA. Patterns of ecstasy use and associated harm: results of a Brazilian online survey. Subst Use Misuse 2009; 44:2014-27. [PMID: 20001692 DOI: 10.3109/10826080902848566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to gather information about ecstasy users in Brazil, particularly on issues related to risks associated to the use of the drug, so as to offer a basis to prevention projects. A total of 1,140 Brazilian ecstasy users answered an online questionnaire from August 2004 to February 2005. Participants were predominantly young single heterosexual well-educated males from upper economical classes. A categorical regression with optimal scaling (CATREG) was performed to identify the risks associated with ecstasy use. "Pills taken in life" had a significant correlation with every investigated risk, particularly ecstasy dependence, unsafe sex, and polydrug use. "Gender," "sexual orientation," and "socioeconomic class" were not predictive of risk behavior. The Internet proved to be a useful tool for data collection. Given the recent increase in ecstasy availability in Brazil, a first prevention campaign directed toward the drug is urgent. At least in a preliminary Brazilian intervention, the campaign must be conducted at night leisure places, mainly frequented by youngsters from upper socioeconomic classes. The results do not call for information material with specific targets, such as gender or sexual orientation. The study's limitations have been noted.
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Clark L, Roiser JP, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. Disrupted 'reflection' impulsivity in cannabis users but not current or former ecstasy users. J Psychopharmacol 2009; 23:14-22. [PMID: 18515464 PMCID: PMC2637477 DOI: 10.1177/0269881108089587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Evidence for serotonin involvement in impulsivity has generated interest in the measurement of impulsivity in regular ecstasy users, who are thought to display serotonergic dysfunction. However, current findings are inconsistent. Here, we used a recently developed Information Sampling Test to measure 'reflection' impulsivity in 46 current ecstasy users, 14 subjects who used ecstasy in the past, 15 current cannabis users and 19 drug-naïve controls. Despite elevated scores on the Impulsivity subscale of the Eysenck Impulsiveness-Venturesomeness-Empathy questionnaire, the current and previous ecstasy users did not differ significantly from the drug-naive controls on the Information Sampling Test. In contrast, the cannabis users sampled significantly less information on the task, and tolerated a lower level of certainty in their decision-making, in comparison to the drug-naive controls. The effect in cannabis users extends our earlier observations in amphetamine- and opiate-dependent individuals (Clark, et al., 2006, Biological Psychiatry 60: 515-522), and suggests that reduced reflection may be a common cognitive style across regular users of a variety of substances. However, the lack of effects in the two ecstasy groups suggests that the relationship between serotonin function, ecstasy use and impulsivity is more complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Clark
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Department of Experimental Psychology, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, and Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK.
| | - JP Roiser
- Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - TW Robbins
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Experimental Psychology, University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - BJ Sahakian
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge,
School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge,
UK
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de Win MML, Jager G, Booij J, Reneman L, Schilt T, Lavini C, Olabarriaga SD, den Heeten GJ, van den Brink W. Sustained effects of ecstasy on the human brain: a prospective neuroimaging study in novel users. Brain 2008; 131:2936-45. [PMID: 18842607 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awn255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have suggested toxic effects of recreational ecstasy use on the serotonin system of the brain. However, it cannot be excluded that observed differences between users and non-users are the cause rather than the consequence of ecstasy use. As part of the Netherlands XTC Toxicity (NeXT) study, we prospectively assessed sustained effects of ecstasy use on the brain in novel ecstasy users using repeated measurements with a combination of different neuroimaging parameters of neurotoxicity. At baseline, 188 ecstasy-naive volunteers with high probability of first ecstasy use were examined. After a mean period of 17 months follow-up, neuroimaging was repeated in 59 incident ecstasy users and 56 matched persistent ecstasy-naives and their outcomes were compared. Neuroimaging included [(123)I]beta-carbomethoxy-3beta-(4-iodophenyl)tropane (CIT) SPECT to measure serotonin transporter densities as indicators of serotonergic function; (1)H-MR spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS) to measure brain metabolites as indicators of neuronal damage; diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to measure the apparent diffusion coefficient and fractional anisotropy (FA) of the diffusional motion of water molecules in the brain as indicators of axonal integrity; and perfusion weighted imaging (PWI) to measure regional relative cerebral blood volume (rrCBV) which indicates brain perfusion. With this approach, both structural ((1)H-MRS and DTI) and functional ([(123)I]beta-CIT SPECT and PWI) aspects of neurotoxicity were combined. Compared to persistent ecstasy-naives, novel low-dose ecstasy users (mean 6.0, median 2.0 tablets) showed decreased rrCBV in the globus pallidus and putamen; decreased FA in thalamus and frontoparietal white matter; increased FA in globus pallidus; and increased apparent diffusion coefficient in the thalamus. No changes in serotonin transporter densities and brain metabolites were observed. These findings suggest sustained effects of ecstasy on brain microvasculature, white matter maturation and possibly axonal damage due to low dosages of ecstasy. Although we do not know yet whether these effects are reversible or not, we cannot exclude that ecstasy even in low doses is neurotoxic to the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maartje M L de Win
- Department of Radiology, University of Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Meyer JS, Piper BJ, Vancollie VE. Development and Characterization of a Novel Animal Model of Intermittent MDMA (“Ecstasy”) Exposure during Adolescence. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1139:151-63. [DOI: 10.1196/annals.1432.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Ersche KD, Roiser JP, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. Chronic cocaine but not chronic amphetamine use is associated with perseverative responding in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 197:421-31. [PMID: 18214445 PMCID: PMC3785131 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-1051-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2007] [Accepted: 12/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Chronic drug use has been associated with increased impulsivity and maladaptive behaviour, but the underlying mechanisms of this impairment remain unclear. We investigated the ability to adapt behaviour according to changes in reward contingencies, using a probabilistic reversal-learning task, in chronic drug users and controls. MATERIALS AND METHODS Five groups were compared: chronic amphetamine users (n = 30); chronic cocaine users (n = 27); chronic opiate users (n = 42); former drug users of psychostimulants and opiates (n = 26); and healthy non-drug-taking control volunteers (n = 25). Participants had to make a forced choice between two alternative stimuli on each trial to acquire a stimulus-reward association on the basis of degraded feedback and subsequently to reverse their responses when the reward contingencies changed. RESULTS Chronic cocaine users demonstrated little behavioural change in response to the change in reward contingencies, as reflected by perseverative responding to the previously rewarded stimulus. Perseverative responding was observed in cocaine users regardless of whether they completed the reversal stage successfully. Task performance in chronic users of amphetamines and opiates, as well as in former drug users, was not measurably impaired. CONCLUSION Our findings provide convincing evidence for response perseveration in cocaine users during probabilistic reversal-learning. Pharmacological differences between amphetamine and cocaine, in particular their respective effects on the 5-HT system, may account for the divergent task performance between the two psychostimulant user groups. The inability to reverse responses according to changes in reinforcement contingencies may underlie the maladaptive behaviour patterns observed in chronic cocaine users but not in chronic users of amphetamines or opiates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen D Ersche
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Mapping Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK.
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Montgomery T, Buon C, Eibauer S, Guiry PJ, Keenan AK, McBean GJ. Comparative potencies of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) analogues as inhibitors of [3H]noradrenaline and [3H]5-HT transport in mammalian cell lines. Br J Pharmacol 2007; 152:1121-30. [PMID: 17891159 PMCID: PMC2095113 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Illegal 'ecstasy' tablets frequently contain 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-like compounds of unknown pharmacological activity. Since monoamine transporters are one of the primary targets of MDMA action in the brain, a number of MDMA analogues have been tested for their ability to inhibit [3H]noradrenaline uptake into rat PC12 cells expressing the noradrenaline transporter (NET) and [3H]5-HT uptake into HEK293 cells stably transfected with the 5-HT transporter (SERT). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Concentration-response curves for the following compounds at both NET and SERT were determined under saturating substrate conditions: 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-hydroxyamphetamine (MDOH), 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenylethylamine (2CB), 3,4-dimethoxymethamphetamine (DMMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-butanamine (BDB), 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-N-methyl-2-butanamine (MBDB) and 2,3-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (2,3-MDMA). KEY RESULTS 2,3-MDMA was significantly less potent than MDMA at SERT, but equipotent with MDMA at NET. 2CB and BDB were both significantly less potent than MDMA at NET, but equipotent with MDMA at SERT. MBDB, DMMA, MDOH and the MDMA metabolites HMA and HMMA, were all significantly less potent than MDMA at both NET and SERT. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS This study provides an important insight into the structural requirements of MDMA analogue affinity at both NET and SERT. It is anticipated that these results will facilitate understanding of the likely pharmacological actions of structural analogues of MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Montgomery
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin Dublin, Ireland
| | - C Buon
- Centre for Synthesis and Chemical Biology, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin Dublin, Ireland
| | - S Eibauer
- Centre for Synthesis and Chemical Biology, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin Dublin, Ireland
| | - P J Guiry
- Centre for Synthesis and Chemical Biology, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin Dublin, Ireland
| | - A K Keenan
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin Dublin, Ireland
| | - G J McBean
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin Dublin, Ireland
- Author for correspondence:
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Vervaeke HKE, Korf DJ, Benschop A, van den Brink W. How to find future ecstasy-users: targeted and snowball sampling in an ethically sensitive context. Addict Behav 2007; 32:1705-13. [PMID: 17188817 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2006] [Revised: 10/10/2006] [Accepted: 11/10/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This article documents the design and the sampling procedures of a prospective longitudinal multidisciplinary study on the neurotoxicity of ecstasy (MDMA): the Netherlands XTC Toxicity Study (NeXT). Targeted and snowball sampling was used to recruit 188 respondents who were ecstasy-naive at baseline. All respondents completed baseline questionnaires and underwent medical and neuropsychological examinations. At the end of a 11- to 26- month follow-up period in which they completed four additional questionnaires, 160 respondents remained (85.1%). A total of 65 participants (40.6%) took ecstasy for the first time during the follow-up period. This paper discusses the ethical dilemmas inherent in a study of this type and the specific problems and solutions that emerged in the sampling. The sampling was tightly constrained by our need to locate respondents who were potential future ecstasy users while also meeting strict medical and technical criteria. The 'intention to use' criterion proved to be a clear-cut inclusion rule that was practical to apply in the fieldwork.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hylke K E Vervaeke
- Bonger Institute for Criminology, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 1030, 1000 BA Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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