Mechanistic contributions of residues in the M1 transmembrane domain of the nicotinic receptor to channel gating

Analysis of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α4β2 activation at the single-channel level

The neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α4β2 forms pentameric proteins with two alternate stoichiometries. The high-sensitivity receptor is related to (α4)2(β2)3 stoichiometry while the low-sensitivity receptor to (α4)3(β2)2 stoichiometry. Both subtypes share two binding sites at the α4((+))/β2((-)) interface with high affinity for agonists. (α4)3(β2)2 has an additional binding site at the α4((+))/α4((-)) interface with low affinity for agonists. We investigated activation kinetics of both receptor subtypes by patch-clamp recordings of single-channel activity in the presence of several concentrations of acetylcholine (0.5 to 300μM). We used kinetic software to fit these data with kinetic models. We found that the high-sensitivity subtype correlates with the low-conductance channel (g-70=29pS) and does not activate with high efficacy. On the contrary, the low-sensitivity subtype correlated with a high-conductance channel (g-70=44pS) and exhibited higher activation efficacy. Opening events of individual nAChRs at high agonist concentrations occurred in clusters, which allowed us to determine kinetic constants for the activation of the triliganded receptor. Our kinetic modeling identified an intermediate state, between resting and open conformation of the receptor. Binding of the third molecule increases the efficacy of receptor activation by favoring the transition between resting and intermediate state around 18 times. The low rate for this transition in the diliganded receptor explains the action of acetylcholine as partial agonist when it binds to the high-affinity sites. The presence of the third binding site emerges as a potent modulator of nicotinic receptor α4β2 activation which may display different functions depending on agonist concentration.

The intrinsic energy of the gating isomerization of a neuromuscular acetylcholine receptor channel

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) channels at neuromuscular synapses rarely open in the absence of agonists, but many different mutations increase the unliganded gating equilibrium constant (E₀) to generate AChRs that are active constitutively. We measured E₀ for two different sets of mutant combinations and by extrapolation estimated E₀ for wild-type AChRs. The estimates were 7.6 and 7.8 × 10⁻⁷ in adult-type mouse AChRs (−100 mV at 23°C). The values are in excellent agreement with one obtained previously by using a completely different method (6.5 × 10⁻⁷, from monoliganded gating). E₀ decreases with depolarization to the same extent as does the diliganded gating equilibrium constant, e-fold with ∼60 mV. We estimate that at −100 mV the intrinsic energy of the unliganded gating isomerization is +8.4 kcal/mol (35 kJ/mol), and that in the absence of a membrane potential, the intrinsic chemical energy of this global conformational change is +9.4 kcal/mol (39 kJ/mol). Na⁺ and K⁺ in the extracellular solution have no measureable effect on E₀, which suggests that unliganded gating occurs with only water occupying the transmitter binding sites. The results are discussed with regard to the energy changes in receptor activation and the competitive antagonism of ions in agonist binding.

The structural basis of function in Cys-loop receptors

Cys-loop receptors are membrane-spanning neurotransmitter-gated ion channels that are responsible for fast excitatory and inhibitory transmission in the peripheral and central nervous systems. The best studied members of the Cys-loop family are nACh, 5-HT3, GABAA and glycine receptors. All these receptors share a common structure of five subunits, pseudo-symmetrically arranged to form a rosette with a central ion-conducting pore. Some are cation selective (e.g. nACh and 5-HT3) and some are anion selective (e.g. GABAA and glycine). Each receptor has an extracellular domain (ECD) that contains the ligand-binding sites, a transmembrane domain (TMD) that allows ions to pass across the membrane, and an intracellular domain (ICD) that plays a role in channel conductance and receptor modulation. Cys-loop receptors are the targets for many currently used clinically relevant drugs (e.g. benzodiazepines and anaesthetics). Understanding the molecular mechanisms of these receptors could therefore provide the catalyst for further development in this field, as well as promoting the development of experimental techniques for other areas of neuroscience.In this review, we present our current understanding of Cys-loop receptor structure and function. The ECD has been extensively studied. Research in this area has been stimulated in recent years by the publication of high-resolution structures of nACh receptors and related proteins, which have permitted the creation of many Cys loop receptor homology models of this region. Here, using the 5-HT3 receptor as a typical member of the family, we describe how homology modelling and ligand docking can provide useful but not definitive information about ligand interactions. We briefly consider some of the many Cys-loop receptors modulators. We discuss the current understanding of the structure of the TMD, and how this links to the ECD to allow channel gating, and consider the roles of the ICD, whose structure is poorly understood. We also describe some of the current methods that are beginning to reveal the differences between different receptor states, and may ultimately show structural details of transitions between them.

The role of the amino acid residue at alpha1:189 in the binding of neuromuscular blocking agents to mouse and human muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) are valuable therapeutic targets. To exploit them fully requires rapid assays for the evaluation of potentially therapeutic ligands and improved understanding of the interaction of such ligands with their receptor binding sites.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

A variety of neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBAs) were tested for their ability to inhibit the binding of [(125)I]alpha-bungarotoxin to TE671 cells expressing human muscle AChRs. Association and dissociation rate constants for vecuronium inhibition of functional agonist responses were then estimated by electrophysiological studies on mouse muscle AChRs expressed in Xenopus oocytes containing either wild type or mutant alpha1 subunits.

KEY RESULTS

The TE671 inhibition binding assay allowed for the rapid detection of competitive nicotinic AChR ligands and the relative IC(50) results obtained for NMBAs agreed well with clinical data. Electrophysiological studies revealed that acetylcholine EC(50) values of muscle AChRs were not substantially altered by non-conservative mutagenesis of phenylalanine at alpha1:189 and proline at alpha1:194 to serine. However the alpha1:Phe189Ser mutation did result in a 3-4 fold increase in the rate of dissociation of vecuronium from mouse muscle AChRs.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The TE671 binding assay is a useful tool for the evaluation of potential therapeutic agents. The alpha1:Phe189Ser substitution, but not alpha1:Pro194Ser, significantly increases the rate of dissociation of vecuronium from mouse muscle AChRs. In contrast, these non-conservative mutations had little effect on EC(50) values. This suggests that the AChR agonist binding site has a robust functional architecture, possibly as a result of evolutionary 'reinforcement'.

Structure of the first transmembrane domain of the neuronal acetylcholine receptor beta2 subunit

The recent cryoelectron microscopy structure of the Torpedo nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) at 4-A resolution shows long helices for all transmembrane (TM) domains. This is in disagreement with several previous reports that the first TM domain of nAChR and other Cys-loop receptors are not entirely helical. In this study, we determined the structure and backbone dynamics of an extended segment encompassing the first TM domain (TM1e) of nAChR beta(2) subunit in dodecylphosphocholine micelles, using solution-state NMR and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Both CD and NMR results show less helicity in TM1e than in Torpedo nAChR structure (Protein Data Bank: 2BG9). The helical ending residues at the C-terminus are the same in the TM1e NMR structure and the Torpedo nAChR structure, but the helical starting residue (I-217) in TM1e is seven residues closer to the C-terminus. Interestingly, the helical starting residue is two residues before the highly conserved P-219, in accordance with the hypothesis that proline causes helical distortions at three residues preceding it. The NMR relaxation measurements show a dynamics pattern consistent with TM1e structure. The substantial nonhelical content adds greater flexibilities to TM1e, thereby implicating a different molecular basis for nAChR function compared to a longer and more rigid helical TM1.

Role of pairwise interactions between M1 and M2 domains of the nicotinic receptor in channel gating

The adult form of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) consists of five subunits (alpha(2)betaepsilondelta), each having four transmembrane domains (M1-M4). The atomic model of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor shows that the pore-lining M2 domains make no extensive contacts with the rest of the transmembrane domains. However, there are several sites where close appositions between segments occur. It has been suggested that the pair alphaM1-F15' and alphaM2-L11' is one of the potential interactions between segments. To determine experimentally if these residues are interacting and to explore if this interhelical interaction is essential for channel gating, we combined mutagenesis with single-channel kinetic analysis. Mutations in alphaM1-F15' lead to profound changes in the opening rate and slighter changes in the closing rate. Channel gating is impaired as the volume of the residue increases. Rate-equilibrium linear free-energy relationship analysis reveals an approximately 70% open-state-like environment for alphaM1-F15' at the transition state of the gating reaction, suggesting that it moves early during the gating process. Replacing the residue at alphaM1-15' by that at alphaM2-11' and vice versa profoundly alters gating, but the combination of the two mutations restores gating to near normal, indicating that alphaM1-F15' and alphaM2-L11' are interchangeable. Double-mutant cycle analysis shows that these residues are energetically coupled. Thus, the interaction between M1 and M2 plays a key role in channel gating.

Molecular mechanisms and binding site locations for noncompetitive antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are pentameric proteins that belong to the Cys-loop receptor superfamily. Their essential mechanism of functioning is to couple neurotransmitter binding, which occurs at the extracellular domain, to the opening of the membrane-spanning cation channel. The function of these receptors can be modulated by structurally different compounds called noncompetitive antagonists. Noncompetitive antagonists may act at least by two different mechanisms: a steric and/or an allosteric mechanism. The simplest idea representing a steric mechanism is that the antagonist molecule physically blocks the ion channel. On the other hand, there exist distinct allosteric mechanisms. For example, noncompetitive antagonists may bind to the receptor and stabilize a nonconducting conformational state (e.g., resting or desensitized state), and/or increase the receptor desensitization rate. Barbiturates, dissociative anesthetics, antidepressants, and neurosteroids have been shown to inhibit nicotinic receptors by allosteric mechanisms and/or by open- and closed-channel blockade. Receptor modulation has proved to be highly complex for most noncompetitive antagonists. Noncompetitive antagonists may act by more than one mechanism and at distinct sites in the same receptor subtype. The binding site location for one particular molecule depends on the conformational state of the receptor. The mechanisms of action and binding affinities of noncompetitive antagonists differ among nicotinic receptor subtypes. Knowledge of the structure of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, the location of its noncompetitive antagonist binding sites, and the mechanisms of inhibition will aid the design of new and more efficacious drugs for treatment of neurological diseases.

Molecular dynamics simulation of the M2 helices within the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor transmembrane domain: structure and collective motions

Multiple nanosecond duration molecular dynamics simulations were performed on the transmembrane region of the Torpedo nicotinic acetylcholine receptor embedded within a bilayer mimetic octane slab. The M2 helices and M2-M3 loop regions were free to move, whereas the outer (M1, M3, M4) helix bundle was backbone restrained. The M2 helices largely retain their hydrogen-bonding pattern throughout the simulation, with some distortions in the helical end and loop regions. All of the M2 helices exhibit bending motions, with the hinge point in the vicinity of the central hydrophobic gate region (corresponding to residues alphaL251 and alphaV255). The bending motions of the M2 helices lead to a degree of dynamic narrowing of the pore in the region of the proposed hydrophobic gate. Calculations of Born energy profiles for various structures along the simulation trajectory suggest that the conformations of the M2 bundle sampled correspond to a closed conformation of the channel. Principal components analyses of each of the M2 helices, and of the five-helix M2 bundle, reveal concerted motions that may be relevant to channel function. Normal mode analyses using the anisotropic network model reveal collective motions similar to those identified by principal components analyses.