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Jiang X, Zhang N, Sun X, Liu Z, Wang YL. Being pressed for time leads to treating others as things: Exploring the relationships among time scarcity, agentic and communal orientation and objectification. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2024; 63:1318-1338. [PMID: 38317579 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Time scarcity has become one of the most ubiquitous phenomena in daily life worldwide. Five studies (total valid N = 1332) examined whether time scarcity elicits people's agentic orientation and dampens their communal orientation, thus increasing the likelihood of objectification towards others. Results suggested that people who perceived time scarcity were more likely to exhibit objectification towards others regardless of whether time scarcity was measured (Studies 1 and 3) or manipulated using either a scenario (Study 2a) or a recall task (Studies 2b and 4). Furthermore, agentic and communal orientations mediated the link between time scarcity and objectification (Studies 3 and 4). Additionally, the current research provided a nuanced understanding of these effects by differentiating the people being objectified into acquaintances and close friends (Study 2b) and by taking into consideration the trait-level prosociality of participants (Study 4). Results suggested that the effect persisted when people interacted with others who were close to them, and it was also applicable to people who were highly prosocial by nature. Overall, our findings highlighted the serious interpersonal consequence of time scarcity and highlighted the crucial role of value orientation in understanding this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinying Jiang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education (Beijing Normal University), Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education (Beijing Normal University), Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaomin Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education (Beijing Normal University), Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenzhen Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education (Beijing Normal University), Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuqiao Lilly Wang
- Department of Applied Psychology, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University, New York, New York, USA
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2
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Cheng L, Wang X, Jetten J, Klebl C, Li Z, Wang F. Subjective economic inequality evokes interpersonal objectification. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 38520243 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Interpersonal objectification, treating people as tools and neglecting their essential humanness, is a pervasive and enduring phenomenon. Across five studies (N = 1183), we examined whether subjective economic inequality increases objectification through a calculative mindset. Study 1 revealed that the perceptions of economic inequality at the national level and in daily life were positively associated with objectification. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated a causal relationship between subjective economic inequality and objectification in a fictitious organization and society, respectively. Moreover, the effect was mediated by a calculative mindset (Studies 3-4). In addition, lowering a calculative mindset weakened the effect of subjective inequality on objectification (Study 4). Finally, increased objectification due to subjective inequality further decreased prosociality and enhanced exploitative intentions (Study 5). Taken together, our findings suggest that subjective economic inequality increases objectification, which further causes adverse interpersonal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Cheng
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xijing Wang
- College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Jolanda Jetten
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Christoph Klebl
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Zifei Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education (Beijing Normal University), Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Fang Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education (Beijing Normal University), Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
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3
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Zhang Z, Chen Z. Nonhuman treatment reduces helping others: self-dehumanization as a mechanism. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1352991. [PMID: 38505369 PMCID: PMC10948621 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1352991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Objectification is a daily experience with various negative consequences. In four studies (N = 877), we tested whether and how objectification experience contributes to decreased prosociality. Using correlational designs (Studies 1 and 2), we found that participants' objectification experience negatively predicted their prosocial intention and that self-dehumanization could account for the negative association between objectification and prosocial intention. Next, by manipulating participants' objectification experience, we found the negative effect of objectification on prosocial intention, as well as the mediating role of self-dehumanization (Studies 3 and 4). Additionally, we tested the mediating role of self-dehumanization in comparison with relative deprivation (another potential mediator), and consistently found that self-dehumanization was a stronger mediator in accounting for the effect of objectification on prosocial intention (Studies 1, 2, and 4). Together, our findings support the process of self-dehumanization following objectification and offer new insights into the relationship between objectification and prosociality. The implications and limitations of the research were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaixuan Zhang
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Zhansheng Chen
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
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4
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Dai Y, Jiang T, Gaer W, Poon KT. Workplace Objectification Leads to Self-Harm: The Mediating Effect of Depressive Moods. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2023:1461672231213898. [PMID: 38047443 DOI: 10.1177/01461672231213898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
In the current research, we aimed to extend the literature on workplace objectification and contribute to employees' well-being by exploring whether and how workplace objectification increases self-harm as well as the coping strategy that may weaken the effect. Employing archive data analytic, correlational, longitudinal, and experimental designs, we found that workplace objectification was associated with, or led to, self-harm, irrespective of whether such actions provided an escape from work. This effect could not be simply ascribed to the negative nature of workplace objectification. We further found that depressive moods mediated this effect. The detrimental effect of workplace objectification on self-harm was lessened when employees perceived higher alternatives in life. Theoretical and managerial implications were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuwan Dai
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Tonglin Jiang
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Wangchu Gaer
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Kai-Tak Poon
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Psychosocial Health, The Educational University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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5
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Zhang Z, Chen Z, Poon KT, Jiang T. Objectification decreases prosociality: the mediating role of relative deprivation. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1120513. [PMID: 37342634 PMCID: PMC10277611 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1120513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectification denies individuals' personhood and renders them as tools for facilitating others' goal achievement. With two studies (N = 446), the present investigation aimed to contribute to the literature by testing whether and how objectification impacts prosociality, including prosocial intention and prosocial behavior. Study 1, with a correlational design, aimed to test whether participants with greater experience of objectification would report lower levels of prosociality, and to test whether participants' relative deprivation could account for the proposed association between objectification and prosociality. To further test these associations and provide causal evidence, in Study 2, we manipulated objectification by asking participants to imagine future objectification experiences. These studies converged in support of the negative relationship between objectification and prosocial intention, as well as the mediating role of relative deprivation. Regarding prosocial behavior, our findings support a mediating mechanism between objectification and prosocial behavior, although the evidence for the effect of objectification on prosocial behavior is not sufficient. These findings enrich our understanding of the consequences of objectification, while highlighting interpersonal processes' contribution to prosocial intention and behavior. The limitations and potential future directions were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaixuan Zhang
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Zhansheng Chen
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kai-Tak Poon
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Psychosocial Health, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Tonglin Jiang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
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Santoniccolo F, Trombetta T, Paradiso MN, Rollè L. Gender and Media Representations: A Review of the Literature on Gender Stereotypes, Objectification and Sexualization. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:ijerph20105770. [PMID: 37239498 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20105770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Media representations play an important role in producing sociocultural pressures. Despite social and legal progress in civil rights, restrictive gender-based representations appear to be still very pervasive in some contexts. The article explores scientific research on the relationship between media representations and gender stereotypes, objectification and sexualization, focusing on their presence in the cultural context. Results show how stereotyping, objectifying and sexualizing representations appear to be still very common across a number of contexts. Exposure to stereotyping representations appears to strengthen beliefs in gender stereotypes and endorsement of gender role norms, as well as fostering sexism, harassment and violence in men and stifling career-related ambitions in women. Exposure to objectifying and sexualizing representations appears to be associated with the internalization of cultural ideals of appearance, endorsement of sexist attitudes and tolerance of abuse and body shame. In turn, factors associated with exposure to these representations have been linked to detrimental effects on physical and psychological well-being, such as eating disorder symptomatology, increased body surveillance and poorer body image quality of life. However, specificities in the pathways from exposure to detrimental effects on well-being are involved for certain populations that warrant further research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tommaso Trombetta
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy
| | | | - Luca Rollè
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy
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Pecini C, Guizzo F, Bonache H, Borges-Castells N, Morera MD, Vaes J. Sexual objectification: advancements and avenues for future research. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2023.101261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
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8
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Baldissarri C, Fourie MM. Dehumanizing organizations: insidious effects of having one’s human integrity denied at work. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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9
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Wang X, Chen H, Shi J, Chen Z. Threatened humanity in a tight world: Cultural tightness results in self-objectification. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/13684302221097842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Self-objectification can be considered as a specific kind of self-dehumanization that consists of a perception of oneself as more instrument-like than human-like and a decreased self-attribution of mental states. Self-objectification is commonly observed, and its contributing factors need to be better understood. In the present research, we examined whether cultural tightness, which entails strong social norms and punishments for deviant behaviors, is an antecedent to self-objectification. Our hypotheses were confirmed by four studies, involving quasi-experiments and fully controlled experiments ( N = 2,693). In particular, Chinese college students living in a region with a tight culture (compared to a loose culture, Study 1), American employees working in an industry with a tight corporate culture (compared to a loose culture, Study 2), American participants who were induced to support cultural tightness (vs. cultural looseness, Study 3), and those who were situated in a simulated tight culture (vs. a loose culture, Study 4) all showed increased levels of self-objectification. As such, they acknowledged their personhood less and focused more on their instrumentality. Implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hao Chen
- Nankai University, China
- Sun Yat-sen University, China
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10
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Baldissarri C, Demoulin S, Kteily N. Introduction to the Special Issue of Group Processes & Intergroup Relations Less than Human: What People who are Dehumanized Think, Feel, and Do. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/13684302221139414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Over recent years, social psychological research has investigated dehumanization (viewing and treating people as less than human) by primarily focusing on those who dehumanize—the perpetrators. Less is known about those who are dehumanized—the targets of dehumanization. This Special Issue aims to address this gap by assembling empirical works on metadehumanization (when targets perceive that they are being dehumanized by others) and self-dehumanization (when targets come to see themselves in dehumanized ways). In this introductory article, we summarize the state of the science and suggest a research agenda for further studying dehumanization from the target’s perspective, by considering: (a) the impact of dehumanizing portrayal used in media; (b) the role of cultural or societal features in shaping our humanness; (c) the individual or situational variables that trigger a dehumanizing versus rehumanizing reaction to dehumanization; (d) the influence of risk- or protective factors on the emerging of metadehumanizing or self-dehumanizing feelings; and (e) the phenomenon of ingroup dehumanization.
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Baldissarri C, Pagliaro S, Teresi M, Andrighetto L. Humanness in times of uncertainty: On the link between perceived job insecurity, self‐objectification and well‐being. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Stefano Pagliaro
- Department of Neuroscience Imaging and Clinical Sciences University of Chieti‐Pescara Chieti Italy
| | - Manuel Teresi
- Department of Neuroscience Imaging and Clinical Sciences University of Chieti‐Pescara Chieti Italy
| | - Luca Andrighetto
- Department of Educational Science University of Genova Genoa Italy
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12
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Angulo-Sherman IN, Saavedra-Hernández A, Urbina-Arias NE, Hernández-Granados Z, Sainz M. Preliminary Evidence of EEG Connectivity Changes during Self-Objectification of Workers. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:7906. [PMID: 36298257 PMCID: PMC9606942 DOI: 10.3390/s22207906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Economic objectification is a form of dehumanization in which workers are treated as tools for enhancing productivity. It can lead to self-objectification in the workplace, which is when people perceive themselves as instruments for work. This can cause burnout, emotional drain, and a modification of self-perception that involves a loss of human attributes such as emotions and reasoning while focusing on others' perspectives for evaluating the self. Research on workers self-objectification has mainly analyzed the consequences of this process without exploring the brain activity that underlies the individual's experiences of self-objectification. Thus, this project explores the electroencephalographic (EEG) changes that occur in participants during an economic objectifying task that resembled a job in an online store. After the task, a self-objectification questionnaire was applied and its resulting index was used to label the participants as self-objectified or non-self-objectified. The changes over time in EEG event-related synchronization (ERS) and partial directed coherence (PDC) were calculated and compared between the self-objectification groups. The results show that the main differences between the groups in ERS and PDC occurred in the beta and gamma frequencies, but only the PDC results correlated with the self-objectification group. These results provide information for further understanding workers' self-objectification. These EEG changes could indicate that economic self-objectification is associated with changes in vigilance, boredom, and mind-wandering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irma N. Angulo-Sherman
- Departamento de Ingeniería Biomédica, Vicerrectoría de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Monterrey, Av. Ignacio Morones Prieto 4500 Pte., San Pedro Garza García 66238, Mexico
| | - Annel Saavedra-Hernández
- Departamento de Ingeniería Biomédica, Vicerrectoría de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Monterrey, Av. Ignacio Morones Prieto 4500 Pte., San Pedro Garza García 66238, Mexico
| | - Natalia E. Urbina-Arias
- Departamento de Ingeniería Biomédica, Vicerrectoría de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Monterrey, Av. Ignacio Morones Prieto 4500 Pte., San Pedro Garza García 66238, Mexico
| | - Zahamara Hernández-Granados
- Departamento de Ingeniería Biomédica, Vicerrectoría de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Monterrey, Av. Ignacio Morones Prieto 4500 Pte., San Pedro Garza García 66238, Mexico
| | - Mario Sainz
- Departamento de Psicología Social y de las Organizaciones, Universidad Nacional de Estudios a Distancia, C. de Bravo Murillo 38, 28015 Madrid, Spain
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Murray AJ, Durrheim K, Dixon J. Everyday dehumanization: Negative contact, humiliation, and the lived experience of being treated as ‘less than human’. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 61:1050-1066. [DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amy Jo Murray
- University of KwaZulu‐Natal Pietermaritzburg South Africa
| | - Kevin Durrheim
- University of KwaZulu‐Natal Pietermaritzburg South Africa
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