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Kumar R, Santa Chalarca CF, Bockman MR, Bruggen CV, Grimme CJ, Dalal RJ, Hanson MG, Hexum JK, Reineke TM. Polymeric Delivery of Therapeutic Nucleic Acids. Chem Rev 2021; 121:11527-11652. [PMID: 33939409 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The advent of genome editing has transformed the therapeutic landscape for several debilitating diseases, and the clinical outlook for gene therapeutics has never been more promising. The therapeutic potential of nucleic acids has been limited by a reliance on engineered viral vectors for delivery. Chemically defined polymers can remediate technological, regulatory, and clinical challenges associated with viral modes of gene delivery. Because of their scalability, versatility, and exquisite tunability, polymers are ideal biomaterial platforms for delivering nucleic acid payloads efficiently while minimizing immune response and cellular toxicity. While polymeric gene delivery has progressed significantly in the past four decades, clinical translation of polymeric vehicles faces several formidable challenges. The aim of our Account is to illustrate diverse concepts in designing polymeric vectors towards meeting therapeutic goals of in vivo and ex vivo gene therapy. Here, we highlight several classes of polymers employed in gene delivery and summarize the recent work on understanding the contributions of chemical and architectural design parameters. We touch upon characterization methods used to visualize and understand events transpiring at the interfaces between polymer, nucleic acids, and the physiological environment. We conclude that interdisciplinary approaches and methodologies motivated by fundamental questions are key to designing high-performing polymeric vehicles for gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramya Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | | | - Matthew R Bockman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Craig Van Bruggen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Christian J Grimme
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Rishad J Dalal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Mckenna G Hanson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Joseph K Hexum
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Theresa M Reineke
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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Dave KM, Han L, Jackson MA, Kadlecik L, Duvall CL, S Manickam D. DNA Polyplexes of a Phosphorylcholine-Based Zwitterionic Polymer for Gene Delivery. Pharm Res 2020; 37:176. [PMID: 32860072 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-020-02899-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE We tested polyplexes of a diblock polymer containing a pH-responsive, endosomolytic core (dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate and butyl methacrylate; DB) and a zwitterionic Poly (methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) (PMPC) corona for the delivery of plasmid DNA (pDNA) to glioblastoma cells. METHODS We studied the physicochemical characteristics of the DNA polyplexes such as particle hydrodynamic diameter and surface potential. Cytocompatibility of free PMPC-DB polymer and pDNA polyplexes with U-87MG and U-138MG glioma cell lines were evaluated using the ATP assay. The transfection activity of luciferase pDNA polyplexes was measured using a standard luciferase assay. Anti-proliferative, apoptotic, and cell migration inhibitory activities of PMPC-DB/Interferon-beta (IFN-β1) pDNA polyplexes were examined using ATP assay, flow cytometry, and wound closure assay, respectively. RESULTS PMPC-DB copolymer condensed pDNA into nanosized polyplexes. DNA polyplexes showed particle diameters ranging from ca. 100-150 nm with narrow polydispersity indices and near electroneutral zeta potential values. PMPC-DB/Luciferase pDNA polyplexes were safe and showed an 18-fold increase in luciferase expression compared to the gold standard PEI polyplexes in U-87MG cells. PMPC-DB/IFN-β1 polyplexes induced apoptosis, demonstrated anti-proliferative effects, and retarded cell migration in glioblastoma cells. CONCLUSION The results described herein should guide the future optimization of PMPC-DB/DNA delivery systems for in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kandarp M Dave
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, 600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15282, USA
| | - Linjiang Han
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, 600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15282, USA
| | - Meredith A Jackson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Lindsay Kadlecik
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, 600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15282, USA
| | - Craig L Duvall
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Devika S Manickam
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, 600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15282, USA.
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Ishihara K, Hachiya S, Inoue Y, Fukazawa K, Konno T. Water-Soluble and Cytocompatible Phospholipid Polymers for Molecular Complexation to Enhance Biomolecule Transportation to Cells in Vitro. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12081762. [PMID: 32781760 PMCID: PMC7465638 DOI: 10.3390/polym12081762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Water-soluble and cytocompatible polymers were investigated to enhance a transporting efficiency of biomolecules into cells in vitro. The polymers composed of a 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) unit, a hydrophobic monomer unit, and a cationic monomer unit bearing an amino group were synthesized for complexation with model biomolecules, siRNA. The cationic MPC polymer was shown to interact with both siRNA and the cell membrane and was successively transported siRNA into cells. When introducing 20–50 mol% hydrophobic units into the cationic MPC polymer, transport of siRNA into cells. The MPC units (10–20 mol%) in the cationic MPC polymer were able to impart cytocompatibility, while maintaining interaction with siRNA and the cell membrane. The level of gene suppression of the siRNA/MPC polymer complex was evaluated in vitro and it was as the same level as that of a conventional siRNA transfection reagent, whereas its cytotoxicity was significantly lower. We concluded that these cytocompatible MPC polymers may be promising complexation reagent for introducing biomolecules into cells, with the potential to contribute to future fields of biotechnology, such as in vitro evaluation of gene functionality, and the production of engineered cells with biological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiko Ishihara
- Department of Materials Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; (S.H.); (Y.I.); (K.F.)
- Correspondence: (K.I.); (T.K.); Tel.: +81-3-5841-7124 (K.I.); +81-22-795-6841 (T.K.)
| | - Shohei Hachiya
- Department of Materials Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; (S.H.); (Y.I.); (K.F.)
| | - Yuuki Inoue
- Department of Materials Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; (S.H.); (Y.I.); (K.F.)
| | - Kyoko Fukazawa
- Department of Materials Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; (S.H.); (Y.I.); (K.F.)
| | - Tomohiro Konno
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba-Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
- Correspondence: (K.I.); (T.K.); Tel.: +81-3-5841-7124 (K.I.); +81-22-795-6841 (T.K.)
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Zhou LY, Zhu YH, Wang XY, Shen C, Wei XW, Xu T, He ZY. Novel zwitterionic vectors: Multi-functional delivery systems for therapeutic genes and drugs. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2020; 18:1980-1999. [PMID: 32802271 PMCID: PMC7403891 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2020.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Zwitterions consist of equal molar cationic and anionic moieties and thus exhibit overall electroneutrality. Zwitterionic materials include phosphorylcholine, sulfobetaine, carboxybetaine, zwitterionic amino acids/peptides, and other mix-charged zwitterions that could form dense and stable hydration shells through the strong ion-dipole interaction among water molecules and zwitterions. As a result of their remarkable hydration capability and low interfacial energy, zwitterionic materials have become ideal choices for designing therapeutic vectors to prevent undesired biosorption especially nonspecific biomacromolecules during circulation, which was termed antifouling capability. And along with their great biocompatibility, low cytotoxicity, negligible immunogenicity, systematic stability and long circulation time, zwitterionic materials have been widely utilized for the delivery of drugs and therapeutic genes. In this review, we first summarized the possible antifouling mechanism of zwitterions briefly, and separately introduced the features and advantages of each type of zwitterionic materials. Then we highlighted their applications in stimuli-responsive "intelligent" drug delivery systems as well as tumor-targeting carriers and stressed the multifunctional role they played in therapeutic gene delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling-Yan Zhou
- Department of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Yang-Hui Zhu
- Department of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Xiao-Yu Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Chao Shen
- Department of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Xia-Wei Wei
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
| | - Ting Xu
- Department of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Zhi-Yao He
- Department of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
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Sun Y, Zhao Y, Zhao X, Lee RJ, Teng L, Zhou C. Enhancing the Therapeutic Delivery of Oligonucleotides by Chemical Modification and Nanoparticle Encapsulation. Molecules 2017; 22:E1724. [PMID: 29027965 PMCID: PMC6158866 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22101724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2017] [Revised: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligonucleotide (ON) drugs, including small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA) and antisense oligonucleotides, are promising therapeutic agents. However, their low membrane permeability and sensitivity to nucleases present challenges to in vivo delivery. Chemical modifications of the ON offer a potential solution to improve the stability and efficacy of ON drugs. Combined with nanoparticle encapsulation, delivery at the site of action and gene silencing activity of chemically modified ON drugs can be further enhanced. In the present review, several types of ON drugs, selection of chemical modification, and nanoparticle-based delivery systems to deliver these ON drugs are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yating Sun
- School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China.
| | - Yarong Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China.
| | - Xiuting Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China.
| | - Robert J Lee
- School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China.
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Lesheng Teng
- School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China.
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Ishihara K, Chen W, Liu Y, Tsukamoto Y, Inoue Y. Cytocompatible and multifunctional polymeric nanoparticles for transportation of bioactive molecules into and within cells. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATERIALS 2016; 17:300-312. [PMID: 27877883 PMCID: PMC5111563 DOI: 10.1080/14686996.2016.1190257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Multifunctional polymeric nanoparticles are materials with great potential for a wide range of biomedical applications. For progression in this area of research, unfavorable interactions of these nanoparticles with proteins and cells must be avoided in biological environments, for example, through treatment of the nanoparticle surfaces. Construction of an artificial cell membrane structure based on polymers bearing the zwitterionic phosphorylcholine group can prevent biological reactions at the surface effectively. In addition, certain bioactive molecules can be immobilized on the surface of the polymer to generate enough affinity to capture target biomolecules. Furthermore, entrapment of inorganic nanoparticles inside polymeric matrices enhances the nanoparticle functionality significantly. This review summarizes the preparation and characterization of cytocompatible and multifunctional polymeric nanoparticles; it analyzes the efficiency of their fluorescence function, the nature of the artificial cell membrane structure, and their performance as in-cell devices; and finally, it evaluates both their chemical reactivity and effects in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiko Ishihara
- Department of Materials Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Weixin Chen
- Department of Materials Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yihua Liu
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuriko Tsukamoto
- Department of Materials Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuuki Inoue
- Department of Materials Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Ghobadi AF, Letteri R, Parelkar SS, Zhao Y, Chan-Seng D, Emrick T, Jayaraman A. Dispersing Zwitterions into Comb Polymers for Nonviral Transfection: Experiments and Molecular Simulation. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:546-57. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5b01462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmadreza F. Ghobadi
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, 150 Academy Street, Newark, Delaware 19716 United States
| | - Rachel Letteri
- Department
of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, 120
Governors Drive, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Sangram S. Parelkar
- Department
of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, 120
Governors Drive, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Yue Zhao
- Quantum
Beam Science Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Tokai, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan
| | - Delphine Chan-Seng
- Institut Charles
Sadron UPR22-CNRS, 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg, France
| | - Todd Emrick
- Department
of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, 120
Governors Drive, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Arthi Jayaraman
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, 150 Academy Street, Newark, Delaware 19716 United States
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, 201 DuPont
Hall, Newark, Delaware 19716 United States
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Goda T, Ishihara K, Miyahara Y. Critical update on 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) polymer science. J Appl Polym Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/app.41766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuro Goda
- Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering; Tokyo Medical and Dental University; 2-3-10 Kanda-Surugadai Chiyoda Tokyo 101-0062 Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Ishihara
- Department of Materials Engineering; The University of Tokyo; 7-3-1 Hongo Bunkyo Tokyo 113-8656 Japan
- Department of Bioengineering; The University of Tokyo; 7-3-1 Hongo Bunkyo Tokyo 113-8656 Japan
| | - Yuji Miyahara
- Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering; Tokyo Medical and Dental University; 2-3-10 Kanda-Surugadai Chiyoda Tokyo 101-0062 Japan
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Lin X, Ishihara K. Water-soluble polymers bearing phosphorylcholine group and other zwitterionic groups for carrying DNA derivatives. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2014; 25:1461-78. [DOI: 10.1080/09205063.2014.934319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Hu J, Zhang G, Ge Z, Liu S. Stimuli-responsive tertiary amine methacrylate-based block copolymers: Synthesis, supramolecular self-assembly and functional applications. Prog Polym Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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11
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Kocic G, Bjelakovic L, Bjelakovic B, Jevtoci-Stoimenov T, Sokolovic D, Cvetkovic T, Kocic H, Stojanovic S, Langerholc T, Jonovic M. Impact of folic acid supplementation on single- and double-stranded RNA degradation in human colostrum and mature milk. J Med Food 2014; 17:804-9. [PMID: 24650098 DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2013.0093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sufficient intake of folic acid is necessary for normal embryogenesis, fetal, and neonatal development. Folic acid facilitates nucleic acid internalization, and protects cellular DNA from nuclease degradation. Human milk contains enzymes, antimicrobial proteins, and antibodies, along with macrophages, that protect against infections and allergies. However, little to no information is available on the effects of folic acid supplementation on degradation of nucleic acids in human milk. In the present study, we aimed to determine the RNase activity (free and inhibitor-bound) in colostrum and mature milk, following folic acid supplementation. The study design included a total of 59 women, 27 of whom received 400 μg of folic acid daily periconceptionally and after. Folic acid supplementation increased the free RNase and polyadenylase activity following lactation. However, the increased RNase activity was not due to de novo enzyme synthesis, as the inhibitor-bound (latent) RNase activity was significantly lower and disappeared after one month. Folic acid reduced RNase activity by using double-stranded RNA as substrate. Data suggests that folic acid supplementation may improve viral RNAs degradation and mRNA degradation, but not dsRNA degradation, preserving in this way the antiviral defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordana Kocic
- 1 Department of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, University Nis , Nis, Serbia
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Vllasaliu D, Fowler R, Stolnik S. PEGylated nanomedicines: recent progress and remaining concerns. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2013; 11:139-54. [DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2014.866651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Ligand targeted therapy (LTT) is a powerful pharmaceutical strategy to achieve selective drug delivery to pathological cells, for both therapeutic and diagnostic purposes, with the advantage of limited side effects and toxicity. This active drug targeting approach is based on the discovery that there are receptors overexpressed on pathological cells, compared to their expression in normal tissues. PURPOSE The purpose of this article is to review recently published data on LTT with applications, both in the field of cancer therapy and other diseases. Moreover, data on LTT exploiting receptors overexpressed at cytoplasmatic level are also reviewed. METHODS Data were deduced from Medline (PubMed) and SciFinder and their selections were made with preference to papers where the most relevant receptors were involved. RESULTS Several groups have reported improved delivery of targeted nanocarriers, as compared to nontargeted ones, to pathological cells. LTT offers several advantages, but there are also limitations in the development of this strategy. Moreover, LTT have shown encouraging results in in vitro and in animal models in vivo; hence their clinical potential awaits investigation. CONCLUSION Recent studies highlight that the ligand density plays an important role in targeting efficacy. Furthermore, LTT applications in diseases different from cancer and those exploiting receptors overexpressed at cytoplasmatic level are growing.
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Lam JKW, Armes SP, Stolnik S. The involvement of microtubules and actin filaments in the intracellular transport of non-viral gene delivery system. J Drug Target 2010; 19:56-66. [DOI: 10.3109/10611861003733938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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