Nitric Oxide Inhibits Ultraviolet B-induced Murine Keratinocyte Apoptosis by Regulating Apoptotic Signaling Cascades

Role of nitric oxide in regulating epidermal permeability barrier function

Nitric oxide (NO), a free radical molecule synthesized by nitric oxide synthases (NOS), regulates multiple cellular functions in a variety of cell types. These NOS, including endothelial NOS (eNOS), inducible NOS (iNOS) and neural NOS (nNOS), are expressed in keratinocytes. Expression levels of both iNOS and nNOS decrease with ageing, and insufficient NO has been linked to the development of a number of disorders such as diabetes and hypertension, and to the severity of atherosclerosis. Conversely, excessive NO levels can induce cellular oxidative stress, but physiological levels of NO are required to maintain the normal functioning of cells, including keratinocytes. NO also regulates cutaneous functions, including epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis and wound healing, through its stimulation of keratinocyte proliferation, differentiation and lipid metabolism. Topical applications of a diverse group of agents which generate nitric oxide (called NO donors) such as S-nitroso-N-acetyl-D,L-penicillamine (SNAP) can delay permeability barrier recovery in barrier-disrupted skin, but iNOS is still required for epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis. This review summarizes the regulatory role that NO plays in epidermal permeability barrier functions and the underlying mechanisms involved.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate protects primary human keratinocytes from apoptosis via nitric oxide formation through the receptor subtype S1P₃

Although the lipid mediator sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) has been identified to induce cell growth arrest of human keratinocytes, the sphingolipid effectively protects these epidermal cells from apoptosis. The molecular mechanism of the anti-apoptotic action induced by S1P is less characterized. Apart from S1P, endogenously produced nitric oxide (NO•) has been recognized as a potent modulator of apoptosis in keratinocytes. Therefore, it was of great interest to elucidate whether S1P protects human keratinocytes via a NO•-dependent signalling pathway. Indeed, S1P induced an activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in human keratinocytes leading to an enhanced formation of NO•. Most interestingly, the cell protective effect of S1P was almost completely abolished in the presence of the eNOS inhibitor L-NAME as well as in eNOS-deficient keratinocytes indicating that the sphingolipid metabolite S1P protects human keratinocytes from apoptosis via eNOS activation and subsequent production of protective amounts of NO•. It is well established that most of the known actions of S1P are mediated by a family of five specific G protein-coupled receptors. Therefore, the involvement of S1P-receptor subtypes in S1P-mediated eNOS activation has been examined. Indeed, this study clearly shows that the S1P(3) is the exclusive receptor subtype in human keratinocytes which mediates eNOS activation and NO• formation in response to S1P. In congruence, when the S1P(3) receptor subtype is abrogated, S1P almost completely lost its ability to protect human keratinocytes from apoptosis.

Differential roles of nitric oxide synthases in regulation of ultraviolet B light-induced apoptosis

Ultraviolet B light (UVB) activates nitric oxide synthase(s) (NOSs) and nitric oxide (NO()) production, which plays a role in regulation of apoptosis. However, the role of NO() in UVB-induced apoptosis remains controversial. In this study, we analyzed expression and activation of constitutive NOSs (cNOSs) and their roles in UV-induced apoptosis of HaCaT keratinocytes. Our data showed that the expression of neuronal NOS (nNOS) was increased while endothelial NOS (eNOS) was uncoupled in the early phase (0-6 h) post-UVB. The expression of both cNOSs peaked at 12h post-UVB and NO() was transiently elevated with 30 min and then steadily rose from 6 to 18 h post-UVB. The expression of iNOS was detected at 6h post-UVB and then sturdily increased. Inhibition of cNOSs with L-NAME reduced the inducibility of NO(*) in the early and late phases of irradiation. Along with the eNOS uncoupling, an increased level of peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) was detected in the early phase, but not in the late phase post-UVB. Inhibition of cNOSs reduced the production of ONOO(-) in the early time, but led to an increase of ONOO(-) in the late time after UVB-irradiation. The results indicate that cNOSs regulate NO()/ONOO(-) imbalance after UVB-irradiation. Our data suggested that the activation of cNOSs in the early phase post-UVB leads to NO()/ONOO(-) imbalance and promotes apoptosis via a caspase 3-independent pathway. The elevation of NO() in the late phase of UVB-irradiation is mainly produced by inducible NOS (iNOS). However, cNOSs also contribute to the NO() production and to maintain a higher NO()/ONOO(-) ratio, which reduces caspase 3 activity and protects cells from UVB-induced apoptosis.

Nitric oxide synthase activation and oxidative stress, but not intracellular zinc dyshomeostasis, regulate ultraviolet B light-induced apoptosis

AIMS

To investigate the role of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and intracellular free zinc ion (Zn(2+)) in regulation of ultraviolet B light (UVB)-induced cell damage and apoptosis.

MAIN METHODS

Real-time confocal microscopy measurement was used to determine the changes of intracellular free zinc concentration under different conditions. Cell apoptotic death was determined using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) conjugated-annexin V (ANX5)/PI labeling followed by flow cytometry. Western analysis was used to determine cell apoptosis and eNOS uncoupling.

KEY FINDINGS

UVB induced an elevation of Zn(2+) within 2 min of exposure. The UVB-induced intracellular Zn(2+) elevation was dependent on the increase of constitutive nitric oxide synthase (cNOS) activity and production of superoxide. Removal of Zn(2+) with a lower concentration (<25 microM) of N,N,N',N'-tetrakis (2-pyridylmethyl) ethylenediamine (TPEN), a Zn(2+)-specific chelator, did not induce cell death or prevent cells from UVB-induced apoptosis. However, a higher [TPEN] (>50 microM) was cytotoxic to cells, but prevented cells from further UVB-induced apoptosis. The higher [TPEN] also induced cNOS uncoupling. Furthermore, treating the cells with a membrane permeable superoxide dismutase (PEG-SOD) inhibited Zn(2+) release and reduced apoptotic cell death after UVB treatment. The results demonstrated a complex and dynamic regulation of UVB-induced cell damage.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings not only advance our understanding of the correlations between cNOS activation and Zn elevation, but also elucidated the role of cNOS in regulation of oxidative stress and apoptosis upon UVB-irradiation.

Ultraviolet B light-induced nitric oxide/peroxynitrite imbalance in keratinocytes--implications for apoptosis and necrosis

Elevation of nitric oxide (NO*) can either promote or inhibit ultraviolet B light (UVB)-induced apoptosis. In this study, we determined real-time concentration of NO* and peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) and their role in regulation of membrane integrity and apoptosis. Nanosensors (diameter 300-500 nm) were used for direct in situ simultaneous measurements of NO* and ONOO(-) generated by UVB in cultured keratinocytes and mice epidermis. An exposure of keratinocytes to UVB immediately generated ONOO(-) at maximal concentration of 190 nm followed by NO(*) release with a maximal concentration of 91 nm. The kinetics of UVB-induced NO*/ONOO(-) was in contrast to cNOS agonist stimulated NO*/ONOO(-) from keratinocytes. After stimulating cNOS by calcium ionophore (CaI), NO* release from keratinocytes was followed by ONOO(-) production. The [NO*] to [ONOO(-)] ratio generated by UVB decreased below 0.5 indicating a serious imbalance between cytoprotective NO* and cytotoxic ONOO(-)-a main component of nitroxidative stress. The NO*/ONOO(-) imbalance increased membrane damage and cell apoptosis was partially reversed in the presence of free radical scavenger. The results suggest that UVB-induced and cNOS-produced NO* is rapidly scavenged by photolytically and enzymatically generated superoxide (O(2) (-)) to produce high levels of ONOO(-), which enhances oxidative injury and apoptosis of the irradiated cells.

In vitro study of the stress response of human skin cells to GSM-1800 mobile phone signals compared to UVB radiation and heat shock

The evolution of mobile phone technology is toward an increase of the carrier frequency up to 2.45 GHz. Absorption of radiofrequency (RF) radiation becomes more superficial as the frequency increases. This increasingly superficial absorption of RF radiation by the skin, which is the first organ exposed to RF radiation, may lead to stress responses in skin cells. We thus investigated the expression of three heat-shock proteins (HSP70, HSC70, HSP27) using immunohistochemistry and induction of apoptosis by flow cytometry on human primary keratinocytes and fibroblasts. A well-characterized exposure system, SXC 1800, built by the IT'IS foundation was used at 1800 MHz, with a 217 Hz modulation. We tested a 48-h exposure at an SAR of 2 W/kg (ICNIRP local exposure limit). Skin cells were also irradiated with a 600 mJ/cm2 single dose of UVB radiation and subjected to heat shock (45 degrees C, 20 min) as positive controls for apoptosis and HSP expression, respectively. The results showed no effect of a 48-h GSM-1800 exposure at 2 W/kg on either keratinocytes or fibroblasts, in contrast to UVB-radiation or heat-shock treatments, which injured cells. We thus conclude that the GSM-1800 signal does not act as a stress factor on human primary skin cells in vitro.