Thermosensitive porphyrin-incorporated hydrogel with four-arm PEG-PCL copolymer (II): doxorubicin loaded hydrogel as a dual fluorescent drug delivery system for simultaneous imaging tracking in vivo

Water-Soluble Star Polymer as a Potential Photoactivated Nanotool for Lysozyme Degradation

The development of nanotools for chemical sensing and macromolecular modifications is a new challenge in the biomedical field, with emphasis on artificial peptidases designed to cleave peptide bonds at specific sites. In this landscape, metal porphyrins are attractive due to their ability to form stable complexes with amino acids and to generate reactive oxygen species when irradiated by light of appropriate wavelengths. The issues of hydrophobic behavior and aggregation in aqueous environments of porphyrins can be solved by using its PEGylated derivatives. This work proposes the design of an artificial photo-protease agent based on a PEGylated mercury porphyrin, able to form a stable complex with l-Tryptophan, an amino acid present also in the lysozyme structure (a well-known protein model). The sensing and photodegradation features of PEGylated mercury porphyrin were exploited to detect and degrade both l-Trp and lysozyme using ROS, generated under green (532 nm) and red (650 nm) light lasers. The obtained system (Star3600_Hg) and its behavior as a photo-protease agent were studied by means of several spectroscopies (UV-Vis, fluorescence and circular dichroism), and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, showing the cleavage of lysozyme and the appearance of several short-chain residues. The approach of this study paves the way for potential applications in theranostics and targeted bio-medical therapies.

Kinetics, Equilibrium, and Thermodynamics for Conjugation of Chitosan with Insulin-Mimetic [meso-Tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrinato]oxovanadate(IV)(4-) in an Aqueous Solution

This study investigated the conjugation of chitosan with the insulin-mimetic [meso-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrinato]oxovanadate(IV)(4-), VO(tpps), in an aqueous medium as a function of conjugation time, VO(tpps) concentrations, and temperatures. To validate the synthesis of chitosan-VO(tpps) conjugate, UV-visible and Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometric techniques were utilized. Conjugate formation is ascribed to the electrostatic interaction between the NH3+ units of chitosan and the SO3- units of VO(tpps). Chitosan enhances the stability of VO(tpps) in an aqueous medium (pH 2.5). VO(tpps) conjugation with chitosan was best explained by pseudo-second-order kinetic and Langmuir isotherm models based on kinetic and isotherm studies. The Langmuir equation determined that the maximal ability of VO(tpps) conjugated with each gram of chitosan was 39.22 μmol at a solution temperature of 45 °C. Activation energy and thermodynamic studies (Ea: 8.78 kJ/mol, ΔG: -24.52 to -27.55 kJ/mol, ΔS: 204.22 J/(mol K), and ΔH: 37.30 kJ/mol) reveal that conjugation is endothermic and physical in nature. The discharge of VO(tpps) from conjugate was analyzed in freshly prepared 0.1 mol/L phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) at 37 °C. The release of VO(tpps) from the conjugate is a two-phase process best explained by the Higuchi model, according to a kinetic analysis of the release data. Taking into consideration all experimental findings, it is proposed that chitosan can be used to formulate both solid and liquid insulin-mimetic chitosan-VO(tpps) conjugates.

H2S-activated fluorescent probe enables dual-channel fluorescence tracking of drug release in tumor cells

Nowadays, the selective release of therapeutic drugs into tumor cells has become an important way of tumor treatment due to the high side effects of chemotherapy drugs. As one of the gas mediators, hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is closely related to cancer. Due to the high content of H₂S in tumor cells, it can be used as a signaling molecule that triggers the release of drugs to achieve the selective release of therapeutic drugs. In addition, dual-channel fluorescence imaging technology can be better applied to monitor the drug delivery process and distinguish the state before and after drug release, so as to better track the effect of drug therapy. Based on this, we used NBD amines (NBD-NHR) as the recognition group of H₂S and connected the tyrosine kinase inhibitor crizotinib to construct an activated dual-channel fluorescent probe CZ-NBD. After the probe enters the tumor cells, it consumes H₂S and releases crizotinib, which is highly toxic to the tumor cells. Importantly, the probe displays significant fluorescence changes in different cells, enabling not only the screening of tumor cells, but also tracking and monitoring drug release and tumor cell activity. Therefore, the construction of probe CZ-NBD provides a new strategy for drug release monitoring in tumor cells.

Sequential drug delivery by injectable macroporous hydrogels for combined photodynamic-chemotherapy

With hollow mesoporous silica (hMSN) and injectable macroporous hydrogel (Gel) used as the internal and external drug-loading material respectively, a sequential drug delivery system DOX-CA4P@Gel was constructed, in which combretastatin A4 phosphate (CA4P) and doxorubicin (DOX) were both loaded. The anti-angiogenic drug, CA4P was initially released due to the degradation of Gel, followed by the anti-cell proliferative drug, DOX, released from hMSN in tumor microenvironment. Results showed that CA4P was mainly released at the early stage. At 48 h, CA4P release reached 71.08%, while DOX was only 24.39%. At 144 h, CA4P was 78.20%, while DOX release significantly increased to 61.60%, showing an obvious sequential release behavior. Photodynamic properties of porphyrin endow hydrogel (ϕΔ(Gel) = 0.91) with enhanced tumor therapy effect. In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that dual drugs treated groups have better tumor inhibition than solo drug under near infrared laser irradiation, indicating the effectivity of combined photodynamic-chemotherapy.

Stimulus-responsive luminescent hydrogels: Design and applications

Luminescent hydrogels are emerging soft materials with applications in photoelectric, biomedicine, sensors and actuators, which are fabricated via covalently conjugation of luminophors to hydrogelators or physical loading of luminescent organic/inorganic materials into hydrogel matrices. Due to the intrinsic stimulus-responsiveness for hydrogels such as thermo-, pH, ionic strength, light and redox, luminescent hydrogels could respond to external physical or chemical stimuli through varying the luminescent properties such as colors, fluorescent intensity and so on, affording diverse application potential in addition to the pristine individual hydrogels or luminescent materials. Based on the rapid development of such area, here we systematically summarize and discuss the design protocols, properties as well as the applications of stimulus-responsive luminescent hydrogels. Because of the stimuli-responsiveness, biocompatibility, injectable and controllability of luminescent hydrogels, they are widely used as functional smart materials. We illustrate the applications of luminescent hydrogels. The future developments about luminescent hydrogels are also presented.

Rhenium in the core of porphyrin and rhenium bound to the periphery of porphyrin: synthesis and applications

An overview of most of the well known rhenium porphyrins (rhenium in the core of porphyrins) is presented here reviewing their synthesis, coordination chemistry, and applications. The important features of oxorhenium(v) porphyrins are discussed elaborately taking into account their application in epoxidation reaction. Moreover, the chemistry of some recently known porphyrin-Re conjugates (rhenium bound to the periphery of porphyrin) is reported considering their applications in the photochemical carbon dioxide reduction process and photodynamic therapy. The number of well characterized rhenium porphyrinoids are limited but they show interesting diverse properties, some of which are also discussed in this review.

Advances and perspectives in near-infrared fluorescent organic probes for surgical oncology

Surgical resection of solid tumors is currently the most efficient and preferred therapeutic strategy for treating cancer. Despite significant medical, technical, and scientific advances, the complete treatment of this lethal disease is still a challenging task. New imaging techniques and contrast agents are urgently needed to improve cytoreductive surgery and patient outcomes. Tumor-targeted probes are valuable for guiding a surgical resection of tumor from subjective judgments to visual inspection. Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent imaging is a promising technology in preclinical and clinical tumor diagnosis and therapy. The rapid development in NIR fluorophores with improved optical properties, targeting strategies, and imaging devices has brought about prospective study of novel NIR nanomaterials for intraoperative tumor detection. In this review, we summarize the recent development in NIR-emitting organic fluorophores and cancer-targeting strategies that specifically target and accumulate in tumors for the molecular imaging of cancerous cells. We believe this technique utilizing new fluorescent probes with an intraoperative optical imaging capacity could provide a more sensitive and accurate method for cancer resection guidance, thereby resulting in better surgical outcomes. This article is categorized under: Diagnostic Tools > in vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

Recent advances in porphyrin-based nanocomposites for effective targeted imaging and therapy

Porphyrins are organic compounds that continue to attract much theoretical interest, and have been called the "pigments of life". They have a wide role in photodynamic and sonodynamic therapy, along with uses in magnetic resonance, fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging. There is a vast range of porphyrins that have been isolated or designed, but few of them have real clinical applications. Due to the hydrophobic properties of porphyrins, and their tendency to aggregate by stacking of the planar molecules they are difficult to work with in aqueous media. Therefore encapsulating them in nanoparticles (NPs) or attachment to various delivery vehicles have been used to improve delivery characteristics. Porphyrins can be used in a composite designed material with properties that allow specific targeting, immune tolerance, extended tissue lifetime and improved hydrophilicity. Drug delivery, healing and repairing of damaged organs, and cancer theranostics are some of the medical uses of porphyrin-based nanocomposites covered in this review.

Porphyrinoid-Cyclodextrin Assemblies in Biomedical Research: An Update

Porphyrinoids, well-known cofactors in fundamental processes of life, have stimulated interest as synthetic models of natural systems and integral components of photodynamic therapy, but their utilization is compromised by self-aggregation in aqueous media. The capacity of cyclodextrins to include hydrophobic molecules in their cavity provides porphyrinoids with a protective environment against oxidation and the ability to disperse efficiently in biological fluids. Moreover, engineered cyclodextrin-porphyrinoid assemblies enhance the photodynamic abilities of porphyrinoids, can carry chemotherapeutics for synergistic modalities, and can be enriched with functions including cell recognition, tissue penetration, and imaging. This Perspective includes synthetic porphyrinoid-cyclodextrin models of proteins participating in fundamental processes, such as enzymatic catalysis, respiration, and electron transfer. In addition, since porphyrinoid-cyclodextrin systems comprise third generation photosensitizers, recent developments for their utilization in photomedicine, that is, multimodal therapy for cancer (e.g., PDT, PTT) and antimicrobial treatment, and eventually in biocompatible therapeutic or diagnostic platforms for next-generation nanomedicine and theranostics are discussed.

Dibutyltin(IV) and Tributyltin(IV) Derivatives of meso-Tetra(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphine Inhibit the Growth and the Migration of Human Melanoma Cells

Melanoma is the most aggressive and deadly form of skin cancer, which is largely due to its propensity to metastasize. Therefore, with the aim to inhibit the growth and the metastatic dissemination of melanoma cells and to provide a novel treatment option, we studied the effects of the melanoma treatment with two organotin(IV) complexes of the meso-tetra(4-sulfonato-phenyl)porphine, namely (Bu₂Sn)₂TPPS and (Bu₃Sn)₄TPPS. In particular, we showed that nanomolar concentrations of (Bu₂Sn)₂TPPS and (Bu₃Sn)₄TPPS are sufficient to inhibit melanoma cell growth, to increase the expression of the full-length poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP-1), to induce the cell cycle arrest respectively at G2/M and G0/G1 through the inhibition of the Cyclin D1 expression and to inhibit cell colony formation. Nanomolar concentrations of (Bu₂Sn)₂TPPS and (Bu₃Sn)₄TPPS are also sufficient to inhibit the melanoma cell migration and the expression of some adhesion receptors. Moreover, we report that (Bu₂Sn)₂TPPS and (Bu₃Sn)₄TPPS act downstream of BRAF, mainly bypassing its functions, but targeting the STAT3 signalling protein. Finally, these results suggest that (Bu₂Sn)₂TPPS and (Bu₃Sn)₄TPPS may be effective therapeutic strategies for their role in the inhibition of melanoma growth and migration.

Polymeric nanoparticles as carrier for targeted and controlled delivery of anticancer agents

In recent decades, many novel methods by using nanoparticles (NPs) have been investigated for diagnosis, drug delivery and treatment of cancer. Accordingly, the potential of NPs as carriers is very significant for the delivery of anticancer drugs, because cancer treatment with NPs has led to the improvement of some of the drug delivery limitations such as low blood circulation time and bioavailability, lack of water solubility, drug adverse effect. In addition, the NPs protect drugs against enzymatic degradation and can lead to the targeted and/or controlled release of the drug. The present review focuses on the potential of NPs that can help the targeted and/or controlled delivery of anticancer agents for cancer therapy.

Optoacoustic properties of Doxorubicin - A pilot study

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a widely used chemotherapeutic anticancer drug. Its intrinsic fluorescence properties enable investigation of tumor response, drug distribution and metabolism. First phantom studies in vitro showed optoacoustic property of DOX. We therefore aimed to further investigate the optoacoustic properties of DOX in biological tissue in order to explore its potential as theranostic agent. We analysed doxorubicin hydrochloride (Dox·HCl) and liposomal encapsulated doxorubicin hydrochloride (Dox·Lipo), two common drugs for anti-cancer treatment in clinical medicine. Optoacoustic measurements revealed a strong signal of both doxorubicin substrates at 488 nm excitation wavelength. Post mortem analysis of intra-tumoral injections of DOX revealed a detectable optoacoustic signal even at three days after the injection. We thereby demonstrate the general feasibility of doxorubicin detection in biological tissue by means of optoacoustic tomography, which could be applied for high resolution imaging at mesoscopic depths dictated by effective penetration of visible light into the biological tissues.

Functional Supramolecular Gels Based on the Hierarchical Assembly of Porphyrins and Phthalocyanines

Supramolecular gels containing porphyrins and phthalocyanines motifs are attracting increased interests in a wide range of research areas. Based on the supramolecular gels systems, porphyrin or phthalocyanines can form assemblies with plentiful nanostructures, dynamic, and stimuli-responsive properties. And these π-conjugated molecular building blocks also afford supramolecular gels with many new features, depending on their photochemical and electrochemical characteristics. As one of the most characteristic models, the supramolecular chirality of these soft matters was investigated. Notably, the application of supramolecular gels containing porphyrins and phthalocyanines has been developed in the field of catalysis, molecular sensing, biological imaging, drug delivery and photodynamic therapy. And some photoelectric devices were also fabricated depending on the gelation of porphyrins or phthalocyanines. This paper presents an overview of the progress achieved in this issue along with some perspectives for further advances.

A Visible Codelivery Nanovaccine of Antigen and Adjuvant with Self-Carrier for Cancer Immunotherapy

Codelivery nanovaccines of antigens and adjuvants have achieved positive therapy for cancer immunotherapy. The insufficient immunogenicity of these vaccines leads to the difficulty of eliciting robust immune effects for immune clearance due to the inadequate loading efficiency, complex preparation processes, low safety concerns, and weak immune responses. Herein, a visible codelivery nanovaccine of an antigen and adjuvant based on self-cross-linked antigen nanoparticles (ovalbumin nanoparticles (ONPs)) combined with the adjuvant (CpG) for cancer immunotherapy was prepared using antigens themselves as carriers. ONPs not only provide sufficient antigens for continuous simulation of the immune response with high antigen loading efficiency but also serve as natural carriers of CpG. In vitro and in vivo experiments proved that ONPs-CpG can elicit a robust immune response including DC maturity, T cell activation, and IFN-γ production. ONPs-CpG induced strong tumor-specific immunity and exhibited remarkable antitumor immunotherapy effects in vivo using mouse models of lymphoma. Furthermore, to perform the precise vaccine delivery, the dual fluorescent codelivery nanovaccine was monitored in real time in vivo by the visible imaging method. With regard to migration tracking, fluorescence imaging allowed for both high resolution and sensitivity of visible detection based on the fluorescence of ONPs and CpG. The multifunctional nanovaccine could function as a robust platform for cancer immunotherapy and a visible system for antigen-adjuvant tracking.

PEO-b-PCL grafted niosomes: The cooperativilty of amphiphilic components and their properties in vitro and in vivo

Niosomes belong to drug delivery systems and consist mainly of non-ionic surfactants and cholesterol. In this study, we designed and developed systems composed of non-ionic surfactants i.e. Tween 80, Span 80 and cholesterol with and without poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PEO-b-PCL) block copolymer, using different molar ratios of the above components. The nanosystems were formed by the thin-film hydration method with purified water as dispersion medium. Several physicochemical techniques were utilized in order to study the physicochemical and morphological characteristics of the prepared assemblies. The results showed that the presence of the block copolymer alters significantly the size and morphology of neat surfactant/cholesterol niosomes. The ageing studies also revealed that the stability is strongly dependent on the nature and the molar ratios of the components. Moreover, neither of the studied nanosystems exhibited elevated signs of cellular toxicity in vitro nor acute systemic toxicity in vivo short-term experiments. This investigation covers a new field of drug delivery platforms those of niosomes composed by different biomaterials i.e. surfactants and block copolymers.

Emerging Applications of Porphyrins and Metalloporphyrins in Biomedicine and Diagnostic Magnetic Resonance Imaging

In recent years, scientific advancements have constantly increased at a significant rate in the field of biomedical science. Keeping this in view, the application of porphyrins and metalloporphyrins in the field of biomedical science is gaining substantial importance. Porphyrins are the most widely studied tetrapyrrole-based compounds because of their important roles in vital biological processes. The cavity of porphyrins containing four pyrrolic nitrogens is well suited for the binding majority of metal ions to form metalloporphyrins. Porphyrins and metalloporphyrins possess peculiar photochemical, photophysical, and photoredox properties which are tunable through structural modifications. Their beneficial photophysical properties, such as the long wavelength of emission and absorption, high singlet oxygen quantum yield, and low in vivo toxicity, have drawn scientists' interest to discover new dimensions in the biomedical field. Applications of porphyrins and metalloporphyrins have been pursued in the perspective of contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), photodynamic therapy (PDT) of cancer, bio-imaging, and other biomedical applications. This review discusses photophysics and the photochemistry of porphyrins and their metal complexes. Secondly, it explains the current developments and mode of action for contrast agents for MRI. Moreover, the application of porphyrin and metalloporphyrin-based molecules as a photosensitizer in PDT of cancer, the mechanism of the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), factors that determine the efficiency of PDT, and the developments to improve this technology are delineated. The last part explores the most recent research and developments on metalloporphyrin-based materials in bio-imaging, drug delivery, and the determination of ferrochelatase in bone marrow indicating their prospective clinical applications.

In Vivo Imaging Tracking and Immune Responses to Nanovaccines Involving Combined Antigen Nanoparticles with a Programmed Delivery

Combined nanovaccine can generate robust and persistent antigen-specific immune responses. A combined nanovaccine was developed based on antigen-loaded genipin-cross-linked-polyethyleneimine-antigen nanoparticles and in vivo multispectral fluorescence imaging tracked the antigen delivery of combined nanovaccine. The inner layer antigen nanoparticles carried abundant antigens by self-cross-linking for persistent immune response, whereas the outer antigen on the surface of antigen nanoparticles provided the initial antigen exposure. The delivery of combined nanovaccine was tracked dynamically and objectively by the separation of inner genipin cross-linked antigen nanoparticle and the outer fluorescent antigen. The immune responses of the combined nanovaccine were evaluated including antigen-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell responses, IgG antibody level, immunological memory, and CD8⁺ cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses. The results indicated that the inner and outer antigens of combined vaccine can be tracked in real time with a programmed delivery by the dual fluorescence imaging. The programmed delivery of the inner and outer antigens induced strong immune responses with a combination of a quick delivery and a persistent delivery. With adequate antigen exposure, the dendritic cells were effectively activated and matured, and following T cells were further activated for immune response. Compared with a single nanoparticle formulation, the combined nanovaccine exactly elicited a stronger antigen-specific immune response.

Injectable Hydrogels Coencapsulating Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor and Ovalbumin Nanoparticles to Enhance Antigen Uptake Efficiency

The combination of an antigen and adjuvant has synergistic effects on an immune response. Coadministration of an antigen and a granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) hydrogel delivery system will afford a novel strategy for enhancement of an immune response because of the dual role of the hydrogel as a vaccine carrier with a sustained release and a platform for recruiting dendritic cells (DCs). Herein, an injectable poly(caprolactone)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(caprolactone) thermosensitive hydrogel coencapsulating GM-CSF and ovalbumin nanoparticles was developed to enhance antigen uptake efficiency. The GM-CSF released from the hydrogel ensured accumulation of DCs; this effect improved the antigen uptake efficiency with the targeted delivery to antigen-presenting cells. Furthermore, the dual delivery system induced a stronger immune effect, including higher CD8⁺ T proportion, interferon γ secretion, and a greater cytotoxic T lymphocyte response, which may benefit from the recruitment of DCs, increasing antigen residence time, and the controllable antigen release owing to the combined effect of the hydrogel and nanoparticles. Meanwhile, the real-time antigen delivery process in vivo was revealed by a noninvasive fluorescence imaging method. All of the results indicated that the visible dual delivery system may have a greater potential for the efficient and trackable vaccine delivery.

Photothermally triggered disassembly of a visible dual fluorescent poly(ethylene glycol)/α-cyclodextrin hydrogel

The real-time tracking and adjustment of the disassembly and status of hydrogels in vivo are important challenges to accurate and precise assessment. In this article, a photothermally controllable, visible, dual fluorescent thermosensitive hydrogel was designed and developed based on a porphyrin-poly(ethylene glycol)/IR-820-α-cyclodextrin hydrogel. Due to the photothermal effect and fluorescence emission of IR-820, it can exert the dual functions of photothermal control and fluorescence imaging tracking. The IR-820 conjugated hydrogel can regulate the hydrogel disassembly by the photothermal effect of IR-820. Furthermore, each component of the hydrogel can be tracked by the fluorescence of IR-820 and porphyrin. Fluorescence imaging tracking and remote photothermal control were merged into the visible and controlled hydrogel disassembly after subcutaneous injection using mice as models. The dual fluorescence imaging visualization of cyclodextrin/poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels revealed the disassembly process by tracking each component, and the hydrogel disassembly can be efficiently accelerated under laser irradiation with the photothermal effect of IR-820. This affords an important basis for understanding the disassembly process of the poly(ethylene glycol)/α-cyclodextrin hydrogel.

Effect of Hydrophobic Polypeptide Length on Performances of Thermo-Sensitive Hydrogels

Thermosensitive gels are commonly used as drug carriers in medical fields, mainly due to their convenient processing and easy functionalization. However, their overall performance has been severely affected by their unsatisfying biocompatibility and biodegradability. To this end, we synthesized poly(l-alanine) (PLAla)-based thermosensitive hydrogels with different degrees of polymerization by ring-opening polymerization. The obtained mPEG45−PLAla copolymers showed distinct transition temperatures and degradation abilities. It was found that slight changes in the length of hydrophobic side groups had a decisive effect on the gelation behavior of the polypeptide hydrogel. Longer hydrophobic ends led to a lower gelation temperature of gel at the same concentration, which implied better gelation capability. The hydrogels showed rapid gelling, enhanced biocompatibility, and better degradability. Therefore, this thermosensitive hydrogel is a promising material for biomedical application.

Investigation of the transport and absorption of Angelica sinensis polysaccharide through gastrointestinal tract both in vitro and in vivo

To investigate the absorption and delivery of ASP in gastrointestinal (GI) tract, cASP was successfully synthesized by chemically modifying with succinic anhydride and then conjugating with a near infrared fluorescent dye Cy5.5. Then, the capacity of oral absorption of cASP was evaluated. The results demonstrated that cASP had low toxicity and no disruption on the integrity of cell membrane. The endocytosis of cASP into the epithelial cells was time- and energy-dependent, which was mediated by macropinocytosis pathway and clathrin- and caveolae (or lipid raft)-related routes. Otherwise, the actin filaments played a relatively weak role at the same time. The transport study illustrated that cASP could penetrate through the epithelial monolayer and mainly mediated by the same routes as that in the endocytosis experiment. Moreover, both in vitro Ussing chamber and in vivo ligated intestinal loops models indicated that cASP could be diffused through the mucus barriers and be absorbed in the whole small intestine. Finally, near-infrared fluorescence imaging presented that cASP could be absorbed and circulated into the blood, then distributed into various organs after oral administration. In conclusion, ASP could be absorbed after oral administration through endocytosis process mainly mediated by macropinocytosis pathway and clathrin- and caveolae (or lipid raft)-related routes, then be absorbed and circulated into blood. This study presents a comprehensive understanding of oral delivery of cASP, which will provide theoretical basis for the clinical application of ASP.