Formulation and in vitro/in vivo evaluation of chitosan-based film forming gel containing ketoprofen

Design and development of tranexamic acid loaded film-forming gel to alleviate melasma

BACKGROUND

Melasma is a skin condition that causes increased epidermal pigmentation, enlarged melanocytes, increased melanosomes, solar elastosis, dermal blood vessels, and, occasionally, perivascular lymph histiocytic infiltrates.

OBJECTIVE

To develop the film-forming gel to alleviate melasma. Tranexamic acid was used as a model drug to evaluate the suitability of formulation to prevent symmetric hyperpigmentation.

METHODS

FFG is a hydrophilic polymeric cross-linked system loaded with an active moiety. Nine different formulations of 2% TXA were formulated using polyvinyl alcohol and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose 50 cP as film-forming polymers. Sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, and carbopol were used as gelling agents.

RESULTS

F7, F8, and F9 showed shorter DT, that is, 11, 8, and 12 min, respectively. The folding endurance of F7, F8, and F9 was >100 folds, and the pH of F7, F8, and F9 was >6. Among three formulations, F8 was further analyzed for in vitro drug diffusion, which showed >95% drug diffusion within 48 h. In vivo, the skin irritation potential of F8 was estimated using BAL/C mice, which confirmed the absence of skin irritation.

CONCLUSION

From the obtained results, we conclude that the FFG can be a strategic attempt to deliver the cosmeceutical drugs like TXA to alleviate Melasma with improved sustainability of the drug.

Recent advances on transdermal delivery systems for the treatment of arthritic injuries: From classical treatment to nanomedicines

Arthritic injuries happen frequently during a lifetime due to accidents, sports, aging, diseases, etc. Such injuries can be cartilage/bone injuries, tendon injuries, ligament injuries, inflammation, pain, and/or synovitis. Oral and injective administration of therapeutics are typically used but cause many side effects. Transdermal administration is an alternative route for safe and efficient delivery. Transdermal formulations of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have been available on market for years and show promising efficacy in pain relieving, inflammation alleviation, infection control, and so on. Innovative transdermal patches, gels/films, and microneedles have also been widely explored as formulations to deliver therapeutics to combat arthritic injuries. However, transdermal formulations that halt disease progression and promote damage repair are translated slowly from lab bench to clinical applications. One major reason is that the skin barrier and synovial capsule barrier limit the efficacy of transdermal delivery. Recently, many nanocarriers, such as nanoparticles, nanolipids, nanoemulsions, nanocrystals, exosomes, etc., have been incorporated into transdermal formulations to advance drug delivery. The combined transdermal formulations show promising safety and efficacy. Therefore, this review will focus on stating the current development of nanomedicine-based transdermal formulations for the treatment of arthritic injuries. The advances, limitations, and future perspectives in this field will also be provided to inspire future studies and accelerate clinical translational studies. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Implantable Materials and Surgical Technologies > Nanotechnology in Tissue Repair and Replacement Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures.

QbD steered fabrication of Pullulan-Terminalia catappa-Carbopol®971P film forming gel for improved rheological, textural and biopharmaceutical aspects

In present work, a film forming gel (FFG) was developed through ingenious amalgamation of polymers: Pullulan, Terminalia catappa and Carbopol®971P ® for cutaneous delivery of clotrimazole (CTZ) employing D-optimal mixture design. The developed FFG possess pseudoplastic, viscoelastic, thixotropic characteristics leading to good spreadability (35.71 ± 1.72 g·s, work of shear; 452.73 ± 8.23 g, firmness). Upon solvent evaporation, FFG converted in situ into bioadhesive film (81.90 ± 3.24 g) leading to longer residence on skin surface, prolonged delivery and ~1.3 fold enhanced CTZ skin retention as compare to commercial cream as evident from biopharmaceutical analysis, which is ideal for skin infections treatment. The simulation analysis suggested ≥10 μg/mL (MIC against C. albicans) CTZ concentration maintained for 2 times the days in rat skin as well as human skin as compared to commercial cream. Overall, the developed FFG system ascertained to be promising delivery system for treatment of chronic skin conditions.

Preparation and In Vivo Evaluation of a Lidocaine Self-Nanoemulsifying Ointment with Glycerol Monostearate for Local Delivery

Lidocaine, a commonly used local anesthetic, has recently been developed into a number of ointment products to treat hemorrhoids. This study examined its efficient delivery to the dermis through the pharmaceutical improvement of hemorrhoid treatment ointments. We attempted to increase the amount of skin deposition of lidocaine by forming a nanoemulsion through the self-nanoemulsifying effect that occurs when glycerol monostearate (GMS) is saturated with water. Using Raman mapping, the depth of penetration of lidocaine was visualized and confirmed, and the local anesthetic effect was evaluated via an in vivo tail-flick test. Evaluation of the physicochemical properties confirmed that lidocaine was amorphous and evenly dispersed in the ointment. The in vitro dissolution test confirmed that the nanoemulsifying effect of GMS accelerated the release of the drug from the ointment. At a specific concentration of GMS, lidocaine penetrated deeper into the dermis; the in vitro permeation test showed similar results. When compared with reference product A in the tail-flick test, the L5 and L6 compounds containing GMS had a significantly higher anesthetic effect. Altogether, the self-nanoemulsifying effect of GMS accelerated the release of lidocaine from the ointment. The compound with 5% GMS, the lowest concentration that saturated the dermis, was deemed most appropriate.

Strategies for transdermal drug delivery against bone disorders: A preclinical and clinical update

The transdermal drug delivery system is an exceptionally safe and well-tolerable therapeutic approach that has immense potential for delivering active components against bone-related pathologies. However, its use is limited in the current clinical practices due to the low skin permeability of most active drugs in the formulation. Thus, innovations in the methodologies of skin permeation enhancement techniques are suggested to overcome this limitation. Although various transdermal drug delivery systems are studied to date, there are insufficient studies comparing the therapeutic efficacy of transdermal delivery systems to oral delivery systems. Thus, creating a decision-making dilemma between oral or transdermal therapies. Therefore, a timely review is inevitable to develop a platform for future researchers to develop next-generation transdermal drug delivery strategies against skeletal diseases that must be convenient and cost-effective for the patients with improved therapeutic efficacy. Here, we will outline the most recent strategies that can overcome the choice limitation of the drug and enhance the transdermal adsorption of various types of drugs to treat bone disorders. For the first time, in this review paper, we will highlight the preclinical and clinical studies on the different transdermal delivery methods. Thus, providing insight into the current therapeutic approaches and suggesting new directions for the advancements in transdermal drug delivery systems against bone disorders.

A Recent Update on Drug Delivery Systems for Pain Management

Pain remains a global health challenge affecting approximately 1.5 billion people worldwide. Pain has been an implicit variable in the equation of human life for many centuries considering different types and the magnitude of pain. Therefore, developing an efficacious drug delivery system for pain management remains an open challenge for researchers in the field of medicine. Lack of therapeutic efficacy still persists, despite high throughput studies in the field of pain management. Research scientists have been exploiting different alternatives to curb the adverse side effects of pain medications or attempting a more substantial approach to minimize the prevalence of pain. Various drug delivery systems have been developed such as nanoparticles, microparticles to curb adverse side effects of pain medications or minimize the prevalence of pain. This literature review firstly provides a brief introduction of pain as a sensation and its pharmacological interventions. Second, it highlights the most recent studies in the pharmaceutical field for pain management and serves as a strong base for future developments. Herein, we have classified drug delivery systems based on their sizes such as nano, micro, and macro systems, and for each of the reviewed systems, design, formulation strategies, and drug release performance has been discussed.

PLGA based film forming systems for superficial fungal infections treatment

As proven in clinical trials, superficial fungal infections can be effectively treated by single topical application of terbinafine hydrochloride (Ter-HCl) in a film forming system (FFS). Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) derivatives, originally synthesized with intention to get carriers with optimized properties for drug delivery, and multifunctional plasticizers - ethyl pyruvate, methyl salicylate, or triacetin - were used for formulation of Ter-HCl loaded FFSs. After spraying, a biodegradable, transparent, adhesive, and occlusive thin layer is formed on the skin, representing drug depot. In situ formed films were characterized by thermal, structural, viscoelastic, and antifungal properties as well as drug release and skin penetration. DSC and SEM showed fully amorphous films with Ter-HCl dissolved in PLGA in high concentration (up to 15%). FFSs are viscoelastic fluids with viscosity which can be easily adjusted by the type of plasticizer used and its concentration. The formulations showed excellent bioadhesion properties, thus ensuring persistence on the skin. In situ film based on branched PLGA/A plasticized with 10% of ethyl pyruvate allowed prolonged release of Ter-HCl by linear kinetics for the first 6 days with a total time of almost 14 days. During ex vivo human skin penetration experiment, Ter-HCl was found to be located only in its target layer, the epidermis. According to our results, plasticized branched PLGA derivatives loaded by Ter-HCl are suitable for the development of FFSs for superficial fungal infections treatment.

Versatile Use of Chitosan and Hyaluronan in Medicine

Chitosan is industrially acquired by the alkaline N-deacetylation of chitin. Chitin belongs to the β-N-acetyl-glucosamine polymers, providing structure, contrary to α-polymers, which provide food and energy. Another β-polymer providing structure is hyaluronan. A lot of studies have been performed on chitosan to explore its industrial use. Since chitosan is biodegradable, non-toxic, bacteriostatic, and fungistatic, it has numerous applications in medicine. Hyaluronan, one of the major structural components of the extracellular matrix in vertebrate tissues, is broadly exploited in medicine as well. This review summarizes the main areas where these two biopolymers have an impact. The reviewed areas mostly cover most medical applications, along with non-medical applications, such as cosmetics.

The role of UVA radiation in ketoprofen-mediated BRAF-mutant amelanotic melanoma cells death - A study at the cellular and molecular level

Malignant melanoma is the cause of 80% of deaths in skin cancer patients. Treatment of melanoma in the 4th stage of clinical advancement, in which inoperable metastasis occur, does not provide sufficient effects. Ketoprofen has phototoxic properties and it can be used as a new treatment option for skin cancers as a part of photochemotherapy. The present study was designed to investigate whether ketoprofen in combination with UVA induces cytotoxic, anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects on melanoma cells. It was stated that co-treatment with 1.0 mM ketoprofen and UVA irradiation disturbed homeostasis of C32 melanoma cells by lowering its vitality (decrease of GSH level). Contrary to C32 cells, melanocytes showed low sensitivity to ketoprofen and UVA radiation, pointing selectivity in the mode of action towards melanoma cells. Co-treatment with ketoprofen and UVA irradiation has cytotoxic and anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effect on C32. The co-treatment triggered the DNA fragmentation and changed the cell cycle in C32 cells. In conclusion, it could be stated that local application of ketoprofen in combination with UVA irradiation may be used to support the treatment of melanoma and creates the possibility of reducing the risk of cancer recurrence and metastasis.

Production, characterization, and evaluation of two types of slow-releasing carbon source tablets for in-situ heterotrophic nitrate denitrification in aquifers

Slow-releasing carbon source tablets were manufactured for an in-situ biological denitrification system. The average zero-order nitrate degradation rates seen, from highest to lowest, were in microcosms to which lactate, fumarate, propionate, and formate had been added. Fumarate was approximately 80% cheaper than lactate, and consequently was determined to be the most optimal slow-releasing carbon source in tablet form. The slow-releasing precipitating tablet (SRPT) and slow-releasing floating tablet (SRFT) were manufactured with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) as the agent of release control, microcrystalline cellulose pH 101 (MCC 101) as the binder, #8 sand as the precipitation agent, and calcium carbonate and citric acid as floating agents. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and powder X-ray diffraction indicated that the crystal arrangement in the SRPTs and SRFTs was maintained and ordered in a manner similar to raw excipients. SRFTs floated in water within 30 min and remained so for 5 d due to the buoyancy of carbon dioxide. The carbon source release rate was proportional to the quantity of HPMC added. The longevities of SRPT with 300 mg of HPMC and SRFT with 400 mg of HPMC were 25.4 d and 37.3 d, respectively. This study observed that SRPT and SRFT were manufactured effectively and are suitable for in-situ slow-releasing biological systems.

Recent trends, challenges and future outlook of transdermal drug delivery systems for rheumatoid arthritis therapy

At present, several drug molecules have been used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, the utilization of these compounds through the oral and parenteral route is limited due to low bioavailability, rapid metabolism, poor absorption, first-pass effect, and serious adverse effects. A transdermal delivery system is an appealing option in this scenario, as it possesses the proficiency to overcome drawbacks associated with the oral and parenteral route. With the innovation of several enhancement strategies, many therapeutic agents have been administered transdermally, proposing an exceptional approach to treat RA. The present article provides an insight into the etiology and pathophysiology of RA. The challenges of the transdermal route and the strategies to improve those problems are described. The current advances in increasing the transdermal efficiency of the therapeutics against RA are discussed. Limitations and advantages regarding the state of the art transdermal delivery system and future outlook are also summarized.

Film-Forming Sprays for Topical Drug Delivery

Film-forming sprays offer many advantages compared to conventional topical preparations because they can provide uniform drug distribution and dose, increased bioavailability, lower incidence of irritation, continuous drug release, and accelerated wound healing through moisture control. Film-forming sprays consist of polymers and excipients that improve the characteristics of preparations and enhance the stability of active substances. Each type of polymer and excipient will produce films with different features. Therefore, the various types of polymers and excipients and their evaluation standards need to be examined for the development of a more optimal form of film-forming spray. The selected literature included research on polymers as film-forming matrices and the application of these sprays for medical purposes or for potential medical use. This article discusses the types and concentrations of polymers and excipients, sprayer types, evaluations, and critical parameters in determining the sprayability and film characteristics. The review concludes that both natural and synthetic polymers that have in situ film or viscoelastic properties can be used to optimise topical drug delivery.

Nanosystems for the Encapsulation of Natural Products: The Case of Chitosan Biopolymer as a Matrix

Chitosan is a cationic natural polysaccharide, which has emerged as an increasingly interesting biomaterialover the past few years. It constitutes a novel perspective in drug delivery systems and nanocarriers' formulations due to its beneficial properties, including biocompatibility, biodegradability and low toxicity. The potentiality of chemical or enzymatic modifications of the biopolymer, as well as its complementary use with other polymers, further attract the scientific community, offering improved and combined properties in the final materials. As a result, chitosan has been extensively used as a matrix for the encapsulation of several valuable compounds. In this review article, the advantageous character of chitosan as a matrix for nanosystemsis presented, focusing on the encapsulation of natural products. A five-year literature review is attempted covering the use of chitosan and modified chitosan as matrices and coatings for the encapsulation of natural extracts, essential oils or pure naturally occurring bioactive compounds are discussed.

Jiawei Yanghe decoction ameliorates cartilage degradation in vitro and vivo via Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Jiawei Yanghe decoction (JWYHD) is a Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) formula for the treatment of osteoarthritis (OA), however the underlying mechanisms of action of JWYHD in OA are not fully explored. This study investigates how JWYHD protects cartilage from degradation via Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. The chondroprotective and anti-inflammatory effect of JWYHD on chondrocytes in vitro and on MIA-induced OA rat model in vivo were investigated. In vitro, JWYHD increased the chondrocyte viability against interleukin (IL)-1β-induced chondrocytes apoptosis and preserved glycosaminoglycans in the extracellular matrix. JWYHD promoted chondrocyte viability against apoptosis, decreased MMP-3, MMP-13, Caspase-3, Caspase-9 via Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in both IL-1β-induced and Licl-induced chondrocytes. The qRT-PCR and western blot results showed that mRNA and protein expressions of Wnt signaling pathway related genes β-catenin and CyclinD1, apoptosis related genes Casapase-3 and Caspase-9, collagen degradation related genes Metalloproteinase (MMP)-3 and MMP-13 were up-regulated, and Col2a1 was down-regulated on IL-1β-induced chondrocytes. Treatment with JWYHD reversed these effects in a dose-dependent manner. Licl was used as Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway activator in chondrocytes to determine the molecular mechanisms. Activation of Wnt signaling pathway by Licl up-regulated β-catenin, CyclinD1, Axin2, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, MMP-3, MMP-13 and IL-1β. These effects were blocked by JWYHD treatment. Furthermore, 75 Sprawl-Dawley rats were used to verify the results obtained in vitro. A total of 75 rats were randomly divided into the control group (no MIA-induced OA, received intragastric administration of an equivalent amount of saline), the OA group (MIA-induced OA, received intragastric administration of an equivalent amount of saline), and the JWYHD treatment group (MIA-induced OA, received intragastric administration of an equivalent amount of various concentrations of JWYHD at 1.4/2.7/5.5 g/kg). After 8 weeks of administration, all rats were sacrificed. JWYHD decreased the MIA-induced up-regulation of β-catenin, CyclinD1, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, MMP-3 and MMP-13 protein expressions in cartilage. It was also demonstrated that JWYHD decreased serum and synovium pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in MIA-induced OA rats and ameliorated the cartilage degradation. Histopathological staining, macroscopic observation and micro-CT scan with 3-dimension remodeling showed a cartilage protective effect of JWYHD. In conclusion, JWYHD possess multiple capabilities including preventing chondrocyte apoptosis, preserving integrity of extracellular matrix and anti-inflammatory effect in the treatment of OA both in vitro and in vivo.

Preparation and evaluation of tacrolimus-loaded thermosensitive solid lipid nanoparticles for improved dermal distribution

Background: Tacrolimus (TCR), also known as FK-506, is a biopharmaceutics classification system (BCS) class II drug that is insoluble in water because of its high log P values. After dermal application, TCR remains in the stratum corneum and passes through the skin layers with difficulty.

Purpose: The objectives of this study were to develop and evaluate solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) with thermosensitive properties to improve penetration and retention.

Methods: We prepared TCR-loaded thermosensitive solid lipid nanoparticles (TCR-SLNs) with different types of surfactants on the shell of the particle, which conferred the advantages of enhancing skin permeation and distribution. We also characterized them from a physic point of view and performed in vitro and in vivo evaluations.

Results: The TCR contained in the prepared TCR-SLN was in an amorphous state and entrapped in the particles with a high loading efficiency. The assessment of ex vivo skin penetration using excised rat dorsal skin showed that the TCR-SLNs penetrated to a deeper layer than the reference product (0.1% Protopic^®). In addition, the in vivo skin penetration test demonstrated that TCR-SLNs delivered more drug into deeper skin layers than the reference product. FT-IR images also confirmed drug distribution of TCR-SLNs into deeper layers of the skin.

Conclusion: These results revealed the potential application of thermosensitive SLNs for the delivery of difficult-to-permeate, poorly water-soluble drugs into deep skin layers.

Controlled Release Film Forming Systems in Drug Delivery: The Potential for Efficient Drug Delivery

Despite many available approaches for transdermal drug delivery, patient compliance and drug targeting at the desired concentration are still concerns for effective therapies. Precise and efficient film-forming systems provide great potential for controlling drug delivery through the skin with the combined advantages of films and hydrogels. The associated disadvantages of both systems (films and hydrogels) will be overcome in film-forming systems. Different strategies have been designed to control drug release through the skin, including changes to film-forming polymers, plasticizers, additives or even model drugs in formulations. In the current review, we aim to discuss the recent advances in film-forming systems to provide the principles and review the methods of these systems as applied to controlled drug release. Advances in the design of film-forming systems open a new generation of these systems.

Medicated Foams and Film Forming Dosage Forms as Tools to Improve the Thermodynamic Activity of Drugs to be Administered Through the Skin

Medicated foams and film forming systems are dosage forms formulated to undergo a con-trolled metamorphosis when applied on the skin. Indeed, due to the presence of propellant or a particular air-spray foam pump, a liquid can generate foam when applied on the stratum corneum, or a liquid or conventional dosage form can form on the skin a continuous film as a consequence of the solvent evapora-tion. Thanks to these controlled modifications, the drug thermodynamic activity increases favoring the skin penetration and, therefore, the bioavailability with respect to conventional semi-solid and liquid dosage forms. Furthermore, the available clinical data also evidence that these dosage forms improve the patient’s compliance. The main formulative aspects of medicated foams and film forming systems are reviewed with the aim to underline the possible advantages in terms of biopharmaceutical performances and pa-tient’s adherence.

Ketoprofen and MicroRNA-124 Co-loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres inhibit progression of Adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats

Ketoprofen, a non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug, is widely used for relieving the pain and swelling caused by rheumatoid arthritis. However, ketoprofen can't suppress disease progression effectively. In this study, in an effort to improve the therapeutic effect for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), microRNA-124 (miR-124), a promising new therapeutic agent for RA, was co-loaded with ketoprofen into poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres and administrated to adjuvant-induced arthritis rats. PLGA microspheres loaded with ketoprofen and miR-124 were prepared by a modified multiple emulsion-solvent evaporation method. In vivo pharmacodynamics experimental results indicated ketoprofen in co-loaded microspheres could significantly reduce inflammation of the joints and miR-124 in the microspheres could reduce bone damage. In addition, ketoprofen and miR-124 co-loaded PLGA microspheres had a remarkable advanced activity over delivery of either miR-124 or ketoprofen in suppressing adjuvant-induced arthritis (AA) in rats. Results of western blot and immunohistochemistry revealed that miR-124 could reduce the level of receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL). These results suggested co-delivery of ketoprofen and miR-124 could achieve synergistic effects on preventing inflammation and bone damage caused by AA. Ketoprofen and miR-124 co-loaded PLGA microspheres could be a promising combined therapeutic strategy against RA.

Novel reverse electrodialysis-driven iontophoretic system for topical and transdermal delivery of poorly permeable therapeutic agents

Topical and transdermal drug delivery has great potential in non-invasive and non-oral administration of poorly bioavailable therapeutic agents. However, due to the barrier function of the stratum corneum, the drugs that can be clinically feasible candidates for topical and transdermal delivery have been limited to small-sized lipophilic molecules. Previously, we fabricated a novel iontophoretic system using reverse electrodialysis (RED) technology (RED system). However, no study has demonstrated its utility in topical and/or transdermal delivery of poorly permeable therapeutic agents. In this study, we report the topical delivery of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-hyaluronic acid (FITC-HA) and vitamin C and the transdermal delivery of lopinavir using our newly developed RED system in the in vitro hairless mouse skin and in vivo Sprague-Dawley rat models. The RED system significantly enhanced the efficiency of topical HA and vitamin C and transdermal lopinavir delivery. Moreover, the efficiency and safety of transdermal delivery using the RED system were comparable with those of a commercial ketoprofen patch formulation. Thus, the RED system can be a potential topical and transdermal delivery system for various poorly bioavailable pharmaceuticals including HA, vitamin C, and lopinavir.