D-optimal mixture design for optimization of topical dapsone niosomes: in vitro characterization and in vivo activity against Cutibacterium acnes

Niosome as a promising tool for increasing the effectiveness of anti-inflammatory compounds

Niosomes are drug delivery systems with widespread applications in pharmaceutical research and the cosmetic industry. Niosomes are vesicles of one or more bilayers made of non-ionic surfactants, cholesterol, and charge inducers. Because of their bilayer characteristics, similar to liposomes, niosomes can be loaded with lipophilic and hydrophilic cargos. Therefore, they are more stable and cheaper in preparation than liposomes. They can be classified into four categories according to their sizes and structures, namely small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs), large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs,), multilamellar vesicles (MLVs), and multivesicular vesicles (MVVs). There are many methods for niosome preparation, such as thin-film hydration, solvent injection, and heating method. The current study focuses on the preparation methods and pharmacological effects of niosomes loaded with natural and chemical anti-inflammatory compounds in kinds of literature during the past decade. We found that most research was carried out to load anti-inflammatory agents like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) into niosome vesicles. The studies revealed that niosomes could improve anti-inflammatory agents' physicochemical properties, including solubility, cellular uptake, stability, encapsulation, drug release and liberation, efficiency, and oral bioavailability or topical absorption. See also the graphical abstract(Fig. 1).

An Overview of Biofilm-Associated Infections and the Role of Phytochemicals and Nanomaterials in Their Control and Prevention

Biofilm formation is considered one of the primary virulence mechanisms in Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogenic species, particularly those responsible for chronic infections and promoting bacterial survival within the host. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in discovering new compounds capable of inhibiting biofilm formation. This is considered a promising antivirulence strategy that could potentially overcome antibiotic resistance issues. Effective antibiofilm agents should possess distinctive properties. They should be structurally unique, enable easy entry into cells, influence quorum sensing signaling, and synergize with other antibacterial agents. Many of these properties are found in both natural systems that are isolated from plants and in synthetic systems like nanoparticles and nanocomposites. In this review, we discuss the clinical nature of biofilm-associated infections and some of the mechanisms associated with their antibiotic tolerance. We focus on the advantages and efficacy of various natural and synthetic compounds as a new therapeutic approach to control bacterial biofilms and address multidrug resistance in bacteria.

Resolving acne with optimized adapalene microspongeal gel, in vivo and clinical evaluations

In our pursuit of enhancing acne treatment while minimizing side effects, we developed tailored Adapalene microsponges (MS) optimized using a Box-Behnken design 33. The independent variables, Eudragit RS100 percentage in the polymer mixture, organic phase volume, and drug to polymer percentage, were explored. The optimized formulation exhibited remarkable characteristics, with a 98.3% ± 1.6 production yield, 97.3% ± 1.64 entrapment efficiency, and a particle size of 31.8 ± 1.1 µm. Notably, it achieved a 24 h cumulative drug release of 75.1% ± 1.4. To delve deeper into its efficacy, we evaluated the optimized microspongeal-gel in vitro, in vivo, and clinically. It demonstrated impressive retention in the pilosebaceous unit, a target for acne treatment. Comparative studies between our optimized Adapalene microspongeal gel and marketed Adapalene revealed superior performance. In vivo studies on Propionibacterium acnes-infected mice ears showed a remarkable 97% reduction in ear thickness, accompanied by a significant decrease in inflammatory signs and NF-κB levels, as confirmed by histopathological and histochemical examination. Moreover, in preliminary clinical evaluation, it demonstrated outstanding effectiveness in reducing comedonal lesions while causing fewer irritations. This not only indicates its potential for clinical application but also underscores its ability to enhance patient satisfaction, paving the way for future commercialization.

Recovery and utilization of waste filtrate from industrial biological fermentation: Development and metabolite profile of the Bacillus cereus liquid bio-fertilizer

Most fermentation waste filtrates can be used as raw materials for producing bio-fertilizers to reduce wastewater emissions and environmental pollution, but their bio-fertilizer utilization depends on the nutrients contained and their metabolized by functional microorganism. To achieve bio-fertilizer utilization of Acremonium terricola fermented waste filtrate, this study systematically explored the functional microbial species for making good use of waste liquid, optimized material process parameters for bio-fertilizer production based on D-optimal mixture design method, and analyzed the composition of the waste filtrate and its metabolism by functional microorganisms using a non-targeted LC-MS metagenomics technique. The results showed that Bacillus cereus was the functional microbial candidate for producing bio-fertilizer because of its more efficiently utilize the waste filtrate than other Bacillus sp. The optimal material process parameters of the liquid bio-fertilizer were the inoculum dose of 5% (v:v, %), 80% of waste filtrate, 0.25% of N, 3.5% of P2O5, 3.25% of K2O of mass percentage. Under these conditions, the colony forming unit (CFU) of Bacillus cereus could reach (1.59 ± 0.01) × 108 CFU/mL, which met the bio-fertilizer standard requirements of the People's Republic of China (NY/T798). Furthermore, the potential functions of bio-fertilizer were studied based on comparison of raw materials and production components: on the one hand, waste filtrate contained abundant of nitrogen and carbon sources, and bioactive substances secreted by Acremonium terricola, such as β-alanyl-L-lysine, anserine, UMP, L-lactic acid and etc., which could meet the nutrient requirements of the growth of Bacillus cereus; On the other hand, some compounds of waste filtrate with the potential to benefit the plant growth and defense, such as betaine aldehyde, (2E,6E)-farnesol, homogentisic acid and etc., were significantly up regulated by Bacillus cereus utilization of the filtrate. To sum up, this work highlighted that the waste filtrate could be efficiently developed into liquid bio-fertilizer by Bacillus cereus.

Synergistic approach for acne vulgaris treatment using glycerosomes loaded with lincomycin and lauric acid: Formulation, in silico, in vitro, LC-MS/MS skin deposition assay and in vivo evaluation

This study aims to develop a pharmaceutical formulation that combines the potent antibacterial effect of lincomycin and lauric acid against Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes), a bacterium implicated in acne. The selection of lauric acid was based on an in silico study, which suggested that its interaction with specific protein targets of C. acnes may contribute to its synergistic antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects. To achieve our aim, glycerosomes were fabricated with the incorporation of lauric acid as a main constituent of glycerosomes vesicular membrane along with cholesterol and phospholipon 90H, while lincomycin was entrapped within the aqueous cavities. Glycerol is expected to enhance the cutaneous absorption of the active moieties via hydrating the skin. Optimization of lincomycin-loaded glycerosomes (LM-GSs) was conducted using a mixed factorial experimental design. The optimized formulation; LM-GS4 composed of equal ratios of cholesterol:phospholipon90H:Lauric acid, demonstrated a size of 490 ± 17.5 nm, entrapment efficiency-values of 90 ± 1.4 % for lincomycin, and97 ± 0.2 % for lauric acid, and a surface charge of -30.2 ± 0.5mV. To facilitate its application on the skin, the optimized formulation was incorporated into a carbopol hydrogel. The formed hydrogel exhibited a pH value of 5.95 ± 0.03 characteristic of pH-balanced skincare and a shear-thinning non-Newtonian pseudoplastic flow. Skin deposition of lincomycin was assessed using an in-house developed and validated LC-MS/MS method employing gradient elution and electrospray ionization detection. Results revealed that LM-GS4 hydrogel exhibited a two-fold increase in skin deposition of lincomycin compared to lincomycin hydrogel, indicating improved skin penetration and sustained release. The synergistic healing effect of LM-GS4 was evidenced by a reduction in inflammation, bacterial load, and improved histopathological changes in an acne mouse model. In conclusion, the proposed formulation demonstrated promising potential as a topical treatment for acne. It effectively enhanced the cutaneous absorption of lincomycin, exhibited favorable physical properties, and synergistic antibacterial and healing effects. This study provides valuable insights for the development of an effective therapeutic approach for acne management.

Niosome as an Effective Nanoscale Solution for the Treatment of Microbial Infections

Numerous disorders go untreated owing to a lack of a suitable drug delivery technology or an appropriate therapeutic moiety, particularly when toxicities and side effects are a major concern. Treatment options for microbiological infections are not fulfilled owing to significant adverse effects or extended therapeutic options. Advanced therapy options, such as active targeting, may be preferable to traditional ways of treating infectious diseases. Niosomes can be defined as microscopic lamellar molecules formed by a mixture of cholesterol, nonionic surfactants (alkyl or dialkyl polyglycerol ethers), and sometimes charge-inducing agents. These molecules comprise both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties of varying solubilities. In this review, several pathogenic microbes such as Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Plasmodium, Leishmania, and Candida spp. have been evaluated. Also, the development of a proper niosomal formulation for the required application was discussed. This review also reviews that an optimal formulation is dependent on several aspects, including the choice of nonionic surfactant, fabrication process, and fabrication parameters. Finally, this review will give information on the effectiveness of niosomes in treating acute microbial infections, the mechanism of action of niosomes in combating microbial pathogens, and the advantages of using niosomes over other treatment modalities.

Rosacea Topical Treatment and Care: From Traditional to New Drug Delivery Systems

Rosacea is a multifactorial chronic inflammatory dermatosis characterized by flushing, nontransient erythema, papules and pustules, telangiectasia, and phymatous alterations accompanied by itching, burning, or stinging, the pathophysiology of which is not yet fully understood. Conventional topical treatments usually show limited efficacy due to the physical barrier property of the skin that hinders skin penetration of the active ingredients, thereby hampering proper drug skin delivery and the respective therapeutic or cosmetic effects. New advances regarding the physiopathological understanding of the disease and the underlying mechanisms suggest the potential of new active ingredients as promising therapeutic and cosmetic approaches to this dermatosis. Additionally, the development of new drug delivery systems for skin delivery, particularly the potential of nanoparticles for the topical treatment and care of rosacea, has been described. Emphasis has been placed on their reduced nanometric size, which contributes to a significant improvement in the attainment of targeted skin drug delivery. In addition to the exposition of the known pathophysiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, and preventive measures, this Review covers the topical approaches used in the control of rosacea, including skin care, cosmetics, and topical therapies, as well as the future perspectives on these strategies.

New Insights in Topical Drug Delivery for Skin Disorders: From a Nanotechnological Perspective

Skin, the largest organ in humans, is an efficient route for the delivery of drugs as it circumvents several disadvantages of the oral and parenteral routes. These advantages of skin have fascinated researchers in recent decades. Drug delivery via a topical route includes moving the drug from a topical product to a locally targeted region with dermal circulation throughout the body and deeper tissues. Still, due to the skin's barrier function, delivery through the skin can be difficult. Drug delivery to the skin using conventional formulations with micronized active components, for instance, lotions, gels, ointments, and creams, results in poor penetration. The use of nanoparticulate carriers is one of the promising strategies, as it provides efficient delivery of drugs through the skin and overcomes the disadvantage of traditional formulations. Nanoformulations with smaller particle sizes contribute to improved permeability of therapeutic agents, targeting, stability, and retention, making nanoformulations ideal for drug delivery through a topical route. Achieving sustained release and preserving a localized effect utilizing nanocarriers can result in the effective treatment of numerous infections or skin disorders. This article aims to evaluate and discuss the most recent developments of nanocarriers as therapeutic agent vehicles for skin conditions with patent technology and a market overview that will give future directions for research. As topical drug delivery systems have shown great preclinical results for skin problems, for future research directions, we anticipate including in-depth studies of nanocarrier behavior in various customized treatments to take into account the phenotypic variability of the disease.

Dapsone-Loaded Mixed Micellar Gel for Treatment OF Acne Vulgaris

Mixed polymeric micelles are potential nanocarriers for topical drug delivery. Dapsone (DAP) is an antibacterial used as anti-acne agent, but challenged by low water solubility and poor skin permeability. In the present study, DAP-loaded mixed micellar gel was developed comprising Pluronics F-68 and F-127. Micelles were prepared by solvent evaporation method and particle size, ex vivo permeation, drug loading, and entrapment efficiency were determined. Central Composite Design was used to optimize formulation. Independent variables were concentration of Pluronics at three levels while micelle size and drug loading capacities were dependent variables. Droplet size ranged from 400 to 500 nm. Transmission electron microscopy revealed spherical morphology of micelles. Optimized micelles were incorporated into gel base using HPMC K100M, Sodium CMC, and Carbopol 980 as gelling agents. Gels were evaluated for pH, drug content, spreadability, rheology, syneresis, ex vivo permeation, and subacute dermal toxicity. Compared with solubility of free DAP (0.24+0.056 µg/ml), solubility in mixed micelles was 18.42±3.4 µg/ml in water at room temperature. Order of spreadability of gels was Na CMC < HPMC < Carbopol 980. Carbopol gels displayed thixotropy with index of 3.17. Syneresis for all gels from day 0 to day 30 was found to be in range of 4.2 to 15.6% w/w. Subacute dermal toxicity studies showed no signs of erythema and edema on rat skin until 21 days. These results suggest that mixed micelles can significantly increase solubility and permeability and sustain release of DAP and are suitable carriers for topical DAP delivery in anti-acne therapies.

Hair regrowth boosting via minoxidil cubosomes: Formulation development, in vivo hair regrowth evaluation, histopathological examination and confocal laser microscopy imaging

Minoxidil has been used as an effective and cost-efficient topical treatment for androgenic alopecia. However, due to its poor water solubility, commercially available formulations contain alcohol and propylene glycol in a concentration that causes skin reactions such as irritation and dryness. Therefore, nanotechnology-based formulations can offer an alternative that might increase penetration and deposition of the drug in the skin while minimizing its adverse reactions. Minoxidil cubosomes (MXD-CUB) were prepared by melt dispersion emulsification technique according to full 2³ factorial design. Three independent variables, namely, the dispersed phase concentration, glyceryl monooleate: Poloxamer 407 ratio and Tween 80 concentration were tested. Particle size, polydispersity index and the zeta potential were the dependent variables. The optimized formula was investigated by transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry and in vitro release test. In vivo study included Draize test, histopathological examination, hair regrowth efficacy and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Particle size, zeta potential and polydispersity index of the optimal MXD-CUB were measured to be 131.10 ± 1.41 nm, -23.5 ± 0.42 mV and 0.185 ± 0.0, respectively, and its entrapment efficiency was 80.4 ± 4.04 %. Draize test and histopathological testing proved safety and tolerability of MXD-CUB. In vivo hair regrowth study revealed greater hair growth boosting effect of the prepared cubosomes compared to minoxidil solution. CLSM proved superior penetration and retention of rhodamine B-loaded cubosomes in the skin compared to rhodamine B solution. Therefore, MXD-CUB can be a safe and effective dosage form for minoxidil that overcome the drawbacks of the commercial formulations.