Purification, biochemical, and thermal properties of fibrinolytic enzyme secreted by Bacillus cereus SRM-001

An up-to-date review of biomedical applications of serratiopeptidase and its biobetter derivatives as a multi-potential metalloprotease

Serratiopeptidase is a bacterial metalloprotease used in a variety of medical applications. The multidimensional properties of serratiopeptidase make it noticeable as a miraculous enzyme. Anti-coagulant, anti-inflammatory and anti-biofilm activity of serratiopeptidase making it useful in reducing pain and swelling associated with various conditions including arthritis, diabetes, cancer, swelling, pain and also thrombolytic disorders. It breaks down fibrin, thins the fluids formed during inflammation and due to its anti-biofilm activity, can be used in the combination of antibiotics to reduce development of antibiotic resistance. However, some drawbacks like sensitivity to environmental conditions and low penetration into cells due to its large size have limited its usage as a potent pharmaceutical agent. To overcome such limitations, improved versions of the enzyme were introduced using protein engineering in our previous studies. Novel functional serratiopeptidases with shorter length and higher stability have seemingly created a hope for using this enzyme as a more effective therapeutic enzyme. This review explains the structural properties and functional aspects of serratiopeptidase, its main characteristics and properties, pre-clinical and clinical applications of the enzyme, improved qualities of the modified forms, different formulations of the enzyme, and the potential future developments.

Fibrin and Fibrinolytic Enzyme Cascade in Thrombosis: Unravelling the Role

Blood clot formation in blood vessels (thrombosis) is a major cause of life-threatening cardiovascular diseases. These clots are formed by αA-, βB-, and ϒ-peptide chains of fibrinogen joined together by isopeptide bonds with the help of blood coagulation factor XIIIa. These clot structures are altered by various factors such as thrombin, platelets, transglutaminase, DNA, histones, and red blood cells. Various factors are used to dissolve the blood clot, such as anticoagulant agents, antiplatelets drugs, fibrinolytic enzymes, and surgical operations. Fibrinolytic enzymes are produced by microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.): streptokinase of Streptococcus hemolyticus, nattokinase of Bacillus subtilis YF 38, bafibrinase of Bacillus sp. AS-S20-I, longolytin of Arthrobotrys longa, versiase of Aspergillus versicolor ZLH-1, etc. They act as a thrombolytic agent by either enhancing the production of plasminogen activators (tissue or urokinase types), which convert inactive plasminogen to active plasmin, or acting as plasmin-like proteins themselves, forming fibrin degradation products which cause normal blood flow again in blood vessels. Fibrinolytic enzymes may be classified in two groups, as serine proteases and metalloproteases, based on their catalytic properties, consisting of a catalytic triad responsible for their fibrinolytic activity having different physiochemical properties (such as molecular weight, pH, and temperature). The analysis of fibrinolysis helps to detect hyperfibrinolysis (menorrhagia, renal failure, etc.) and hypofibrinolysis (diabetes, obesity, etc.) with the help of various fibrinolytic assays such as a fibrin plate assay, fibrin microplate assay, the viscoelastic method, etc. These fibrinolytic activities serve as a key aspect in the recognition of numerous cardiovascular diseases and can be easily produced on a large scale with a short generation time by microbes and are less expensive.

Improved anti-biofilm activity and long-lasting effects of novel serratiopeptidase immobilized on cellulose nanofibers

Today, enzymatic treatment is a progressive field in combating biofilm producing pathogens. In this regard, serratiopeptidase, a medicinally important metalloprotease, has been recently highlighted as an enzyme with proved anti-biofilm activity. In the present study, in order to increase the long-lasting effects of the enzyme, serratiopeptidase and the novel engineered forms with enhanced anti-biofilm activity were immobilized on the surface of cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) as a natural polymer with eminent properties. For this, recombinant serratiopeptidases including the native and previously designed enzymes were produced, purified and conjugated to the CNF by chemical and physical methods. Immobilization was confirmed using different scanning and microscopic methods. The enzyme activity was assessed using casein hydrolysis test. Enzyme release analysis was performed using dialysis tube method. Anti-biofilm activity of free and immobilized enzymes has been examined on Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. Finally, cytotoxicity of enzyme-conjugated CNFs was performed by MTT assay. The casein hydrolysis results confirmed fixation of all recombinant enzymes on CNFs by chemical method; however, inadequate fixation of these enzymes was found using cold atmospheric plasma (CAP). The AFM, FTIR, and SEM analysis confirmed appropriate conjugation of enzymes on the surface of CNFs. Immobilization of enzymes on CNFs improved the anti-biofilm activity of serratiopeptidase enzymes. Interestingly, the novel engineered serratiopeptidase (T344 [8-339ss]) exhibited the highest anti-biofilm activity in both conjugated and non-conjugated forms. In conclusion, incorporation of serratiopeptidases into CNFs improves their anti-biofilm activities without baring any cytotoxicity. KEY POINTS: • Enzymes were successfully immobilized on cellulose nanofibers using chemical method. • Immobilization of enzymes on CNFs improved their anti-biofilm activity. • T344 [8-339ss] exhibited the highest anti-biofilm activity in both conjugated and non-conjugated forms.

Cost-effective fibrinolytic enzyme production by microalga Dunaliella tertiolecta using medium supplemented with corn steep liquor

A fibrinolytic enzyme from the microalga Dunaliella tertiolecta was produced under mixotrophic conditions using different corn steep liquor (CSL) concentrations ( 0 ≤ CLS ≤ 0.75%), purified using a combination of salting out and ion-exchange chromatography, and then biochemical characterized. Cultivation of this microalga using 0.5% CSL led to the highest maximum cell concentration (1.960±0.010 mg L-1) and cell productivity (0.140g L-1 day-1), besides a high fibrinolytic activity of the extract obtained by the homogenization method (102 ±1 U mL-1). The enzyme extracted from the microalgal biomass was 5-fold purified with a 20% yield and was found to have a specific activity of 670 U mg-1. The enzyme, whose molecular weight determined by fibrin zymography was 10 kDa, was shown to be stable at pH 3.0-9.0 and up to 70°C with optimal pH and temperature values of 8.0 and 50°C, respectively. When compared to other fibrinolytic enzymes, this protease stood out for its high fibrinolytic activity, which was enhanced by Fe2+, inhibited by Zn2+, Cu2+, Mg2+, and Ca2+, and strongly inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, suggesting that it belongs to the serine metalloprotease family. Moreover, thanks to its thermal stability, the enzyme may be easily preserved and activated under high-temperature conditions.

Purification, biochemical characterization and fibrinolytic potential of proteases produced by bacteria of the genus Bacillus: a systematic literature review

Thrombosis is a hematological disorder characterized by the formation of intravascular thrombi, which contributes to the development of cardiovascular diseases. Fibrinolytic enzymes are proteases that promote the hydrolysis of fibrin, promoting the dissolution of thrombi, contributing to the maintenance of adequate blood flow. The characterization of new effective, safe and low-cost fibrinolytic agents is an important strategy for the prevention and treatment of thrombosis. However, the development of new fibrinolytics requires the use of complex methodologies for purification, physicochemical characterization and evaluation of the action potential and toxicity of these enzymes. In this context, microbial enzymes produced by bacteria of the Bacillus genus are promising and widely researched sources to produce new fibrinolytics, with high thrombolytic potential and reduced toxicity. Thus, this review aims to provide a current and comprehensive understanding of the different Bacillus species used for the production of fibrinolytic proteases, highlighting the purification techniques, biochemical characteristics, enzymatic activity and toxicological evaluations used.

High Retention and Purification of Bromelain Enzyme (Ananas comosus L. Merrill) from Pineapple Juice Using Plain and Hollow Polymeric Membranes Techniques

The demand for bromelian and pineapple fruit has been increasing substantially in the world because of their benefits for the human health and use in diverse areas. In this context, this work aimed to study the capacity of higher retention (concentration); bromelain activity underwent ultrafiltration from pineapple juice (Ananas comusus L. Merrill). All assays were carried out at pH 7.0 and 7.5, and at 0.05 and 0.40 bar of transmembrane pressures. Results have shown that at the best operating conditions, between 85 and 87% of bromelain activity was recovered using the plain membrane separation process at 0.05 bar. The ultrafiltration has shown the capacity to retain 100% of proteolytic activity of the bromelain extracted. The samples have kept the same physics properties after ultrafiltration, and the result was verified via electrophoresis. The bromelain enzyme obtained was characterized, and pH 7 and between 30 and 40 °C were the best conditions. Therefore, this work shows that the use of both polymeric membranes has shown high efficiency, and can be used in the purification of bromelain enzymes.

Microbial Fibrinolytic Enzymes as Anti-Thrombotics: Production, Characterisation and Prodigious Biopharmaceutical Applications

Cardiac disorders such as acute myocardial infarction, embolism and stroke are primarily attributed to excessive fibrin accumulation in the blood vessels, usually consequential in thrombosis. Numerous methodologies including the use of anti-coagulants, anti-platelet drugs, surgical operations and fibrinolytic enzymes are employed for the dissolution of fibrin clots and hence ameliorate thrombosis. Microbial fibrinolytic enzymes have attracted much more attention in the management of cardiovascular disorders than typical anti-thrombotic strategies because of the undesirable after-effects and high expense of the latter. Fibrinolytic enzymes such as plasminogen activators and plasmin-like proteins hydrolyse thrombi with high efficacy with no significant after-effects and can be cost effectively produced on a large scale with a short generation time. However, the hunt for novel fibrinolytic enzymes necessitates complex purification stages, physiochemical and structural-functional attributes, which provide an insight into their mechanism of action. Besides, strain improvement and molecular technologies such as cloning, overexpression and the construction of genetically modified strains for the enhanced production of fibrinolytic enzymes significantly improve their thrombolytic potential. In addition, the unconventional applicability of some fibrinolytic enzymes paves their way for protein hydrolysis in addition to fibrin/thrombi, blood pressure regulation, anti-microbials, detergent additives for blood stain removal, preventing dental caries, anti-inflammatory and mucolytic expectorant agents. Therefore, this review article encompasses the production, biochemical/structure-function properties, thrombolytic potential and other surplus applications of microbial fibrinolytic enzymes.

Role of Fibrinolytic Enzymes in Anti-Thrombosis Therapy

Thrombosis, a major cause of deaths in this modern era responsible for 31% of all global deaths reported by WHO in 2017, is due to the aggregation of fibrin in blood vessels which leads to myocardial infarction or other cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Classical agents such as anti-platelet, anti-coagulant drugs or other enzymes used for thrombosis treatment at present could leads to unwanted side effects including bleeding complication, hemorrhage and allergy. Furthermore, their high cost is a burden for patients, especially for those from low and middle-income countries. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop novel and low-cost drugs for thrombosis treatment. Fibrinolytic enzymes, including plasmin like proteins such as proteases, nattokinase, and lumbrokinase, as well as plasminogen activators such as urokinase plasminogen activator, and tissue-type plasminogen activator, could eliminate thrombi with high efficacy rate and do not have significant drawbacks by directly degrading the fibrin. Furthermore, they could be produced with high-yield and in a cost-effective manner from microorganisms as well as other sources. Hence, they have been considered as potential compounds for thrombosis therapy. Herein, we will discuss about natural mechanism of fibrinolysis and thrombus formation, the production of fibrinolytic enzymes from different sources and their application as drugs for thrombosis therapy.

The Practical Potential of Bacilli and Their Enzymes for Industrial Production

Bacillus spp. are an affordable source of enzymes due to their wide distribution, safety in work, ease of cultivation, and susceptibility to genetic transformations. Researchers are particularly interested in proteolytic enzymes, which constitute one of the most diverse groups of microbial proteins in terms of properties. Despite the long history of their research, this group of enzymes continue to show great potential for practical application in the biomedical industry, as well as in the agricultural industry. Thus, the unique properties of bacillary proteinases, such as stability in a wide range of temperatures and pH, high specificity, biodegradability of a wide range of substrates, and the high potential of sequenced Bacillus genomes are a powerful foundation for the development of new biotechnologies. The current review aims to discuss recent studies on various enzymes in particular, proteinases produced by bacteria of the genus Bacillus, along with their prospective practical applications. This article also presents an interpretive summary of the recent developments on the usage of probiotic Bacillus strains as potential feed additives.

Cost-effective fibrinolytic enzyme production by Bacillus subtilis WR350 using medium supplemented with corn steep powder and sucrose

The goal of this study was to develop a cheap and simple medium and to optimize fermentation parameters for fibrinolytic enzyme production by Bacillus subtilis WR350. A low-cost medium containing 35 g/L sucrose, 20 g/L corn steep powder and 2 g/L MgSO₄·7H₂O was developed via single-factor and orthogonal experiments. A cheap nitrogen source, corn steep powder, was used to replace the soy peptone present in the initial medium. The highest fibrinolytic activity of 5865 U/mL was achieved using the optimized medium in a 100-L fermenter with an aeration rate of 1.0 vvm and an agitation speed of 200 rpm. The resulting enzyme yield was among the highest described in the literature with respect to fibrinolytic activity, as determined by the fibrin plate method. Techno-economic evaluation indicated that the cost of the optimized medium was only 8.5% of the cost of the initial medium, and the total fermentation cost of fibrinolytic enzyme production using the optimized medium was 23.35% of the cost of using the initial medium.