High Performance Liquid Chromatographic Profiling of Cannabis Products

Hemp-Derived CBD Used in Food and Food Supplements

Cannabis sativa L., a plant historically utilized for textile fibers, oil, and animal feed, is progressively being recognized as a potential food source. This review elucidates the nutritional and functional attributes of hemp and cannabidiol (CBD) within the context of food science. Hemp is characterized by the presence of approximately 545 secondary metabolites, among which around 144 are bioactive cannabinoids of primary importance. The study looks in detail at the nutritional components of cannabis and the potential health benefits of CBD, encompassing anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and antipsychotic effects. The review deals with the legislation and potential applications of hemp in the food industry and with the future directions of cannabis applications as well. The paper emphasizes the need for more scientific investigation to validate the safety and efficacy of hemp components in food products, as current research suggests that CBD may have great benefits for a wide range of consumers.

Characterization of Some "Hashish" Samples in the Egyptian Illicit Trafficking Market Using a Thermal Separation Probe and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Drugs that are illegal have long been a part of Egyptian society. The most widely misused form of narcotic is marijuana, also known as "bango", and other cannabis-related products like "hashish". The chemical profile of some available "hashish" in the local Egyptian illegal market and its possible country of origin are investigated using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique in conjunction with a thermal separation probe (TSP/GC/MS). The TSP/GC/MS method reveals the presence of 23 different terpenes, of which caryophylla-4(12),8(13)-dien-5α-ol, isoaromadendrene epoxide, caryophyllene, and alloaromadendrene oxide-(1) are detected in high relative proportions. Ten cannabinoid components are also detected. These are cannabiorcochromene (CBC-C1), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-8-THC), exo-THC, cannabichromene, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabielsoin (CBE), dronabinol (delta-9-THC), cannabigerol (CBG), and cannabinol (CBN). Phenotypic index (THC % + CBN %)/CBD %) is measured for the test samples to identify both the nature of the samples (fiber- or drug-type cannabis) and the country of origin.

Analytical method validation for assay determination of cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol in hemp oil infused products by RP-HPLC

A simple quantitative reverse phase high performance liquid chromatographic (RP-HPLC) method has been developed and validated for assay determination of cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol in hemp oil infused products. The RP-HPLC method was developed and optimized for the mobile phase composition, flow rate, column selection and detector wavelength. An isocratic elution of samples were performed on SOLAS 100 Å C18 150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm column with a mobile phase containing 75/25 acetonitrile/water v/v, with a flow rate of 1.5 mL/min by using an ultraviolet–visible (UV/Vis) detector operating at 214 nm. The RP-HPLC method was validated to meet regulatory requirements which covers specificity, accuracy, range, linearity, precision, system suitability and robustness. The validated assay test method was applied successfully to quantify cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol in commercial hemp oil infused products such as tablets, soft gel capsules, plant extract oils, oral drops, tincture, and beverage enhancers. All the test results were found acceptable as per ICH guidelines, and this confirmed the feasibility of this method for its intended use in regular quality control and assay of cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol in hemp oil infused products.

Impact of Different Growing Substrates on Growth, Yield and Cannabinoid Content of Two Cannabis sativa L. Genotypes in a Pot Culture

The impacts of different growing substrate compositions, consisting of peat (PM), peat substituted with 30% green fibre (G30) and coco coir fibre (CC) growth media, were investigated in regard to the plant height, biomass and floral yield, biomass nitrogen (N) content, root growth, and cannabidiol content (CBD/A) of two phytocannabinoid-rich cannabis genotypes in an indoor pot cultivation system. Genotypes and substrate treatment combinations were randomly allocated to 36 plants according to a Latin square design. The results showed a higher total plant height for PM (39.96 cm), followed by G30 (35.28 cm), and the lowest in CC (31.54 cm). The N content of leaves indicated the highest values for plants grown in G30 (52.24 g kg DW−1), followed by PM (46.75 g kg DW−1) and a significantly lower content for CC (37.00 g kg DW−1). Root length density (RLD) increased by 40% (PM) and 50% (G30), compared to CC treatments, with no significant differences in root dry weight. Both genotypes, Kanada (KAN) and 0.2x, reacted in a genotype-specific manner. KAN indicated a reduced floral yield of plants grown in G30 (4.94 g plant−1) and CC (3.84 g plant−1) compared to PM (8.56 g plant−1). 0.2x indicated stable high floral yields of 9.19 g plant−1 (G30) to 7.90 g plant−1 (CC). Leaf DW increased in PM (5.78 g plant−1) and G30 (5.66 g plant−1) compared to CC (3.30 g plant−1), while CBD/A content remained constant. Due to a higher biomass yield, the CBD/A yield of flowers (549.66 mg plant−1) and leaves (224.16 mg plant−1) revealed 0.2x as an interesting genotype for indoor pot cultivation in a peat-based substrate substituted with 30% green fibres. Overall, the demand for organic green fibres to partly replace fractionated peat showed a genotype-specific option for a homogeneous plant development, with comparable high biomass yields and stable cannabinoid contents compared to a peat containing standard substrate.

Impact of Different Phytohormones on Morphology, Yield and Cannabinoid Content of Cannabis sativa L

The impact of exogenously applied plant growth regulators (PGR), 1-naphthalenaecetic acid (NAA), 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), and a mixture of both (NAA/BAP-mix), was investigated in regard to plant height, length of axillary branches, number of internodes, biomass yield and cannabinoid content of three different phytocannabinoid-rich (PCR) Cannabis genotypes. The results showed that total plant height was significantly reduced under the application of NAA (28%), BAP (18%), and NAA/BAP-mix treated plants (15%). Axillary branch length was also significantly reduced by 58% (NAA) and 30% (NAA/BAP-mix). BAP did not significantly reduce the length of axillary branches. The number of internodes was reduced by NAA (19%), BAP (10%), and the NAA/BAP-mix (14%) compared to the untreated control. NAA application influenced the plant architecture of the tested cv. KANADA beneficially, resulting in a more compact growth habitus, while inflorescence yield (23.51 g plant-1) remained similar compared to the control (24.31 g plant-1). Inflorescence yield of v. 0.2x and cv. FED was reduced due to PGR application while cannabinoid content remained stable. Overall, the application of PGR could be used on a genotype-specific level to beneficially influence plant architecture and optimize inflorescence yield per unit area and thus cannabinoid yield, especially in the presence of space limitations under indoor cultivation.

Impact of Growth Stage and Biomass Fractions on Cannabinoid Content and Yield of Different Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Genotypes

The medicinal use of cannabinoids renewed the interest in industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.). The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of growth stage and biomass fractions of seven industrial hemp genotypes. The study focused on biomass yield, content of cannabidiolic acid/cannabidiol (CBDA/CBD), cannabigerolic acid/cannabigerol (CBGA/CBG), and tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA). The experiment was conducted in 2017 and 2018. The biomass samples were taken at the vegetative (S1), bud (S2), full-flowering (S3) and seed maturity stage (S4). Plants were fractionated into inflorescence, upper and lower leaves. The average inflorescence dry yield of genotypes Futura75, Fédora17, Félina32 and Ferimon ranged between 257.28 g m−2 to 442.00 g m−2, resulting in a maximum yield of CBDA at S4, with 4568.26 mg m−2, 6011.20 mg m−2, 4975.60 mg m−2 and 1929.60 mg m−2, respectively. CBGA was exclusively found in genotype Santhica27, with a maximum CBGA yield of 5721.77 mg m−2 in inflorescence at growth stage S4 and a dry weight yield of 408.99 g m−2. Although these industrial hemp genotypes are mainly cultivated for fibre and seed production, however, cannabinoids offer an additional value. For an optimized harvest result, yield of extractable material and overall yield of cannabinoids must be considered.

Evolution of the Cannabinoid and Terpene Content during the Growth of Cannabis sativa Plants from Different Chemotypes

The evolution of major cannabinoids and terpenes during the growth of Cannabis sativa plants was studied. In this work, seven different plants were selected: three each from chemotypes I and III and one from chemotype II. Fifty clones of each mother plant were grown indoors under controlled conditions. Every week, three plants from each variety were cut and dried, and the leaves and flowers were analyzed separately. Eight major cannabinoids were analyzed via HPLC-DAD, and 28 terpenes were quantified using GC-FID and verified via GC-MS. The chemotypes of the plants, as defined by the tetrahydrocannabinolic acid/cannabidiolic acid (THCA/CBDA) ratio, were clear from the beginning and stable during growth. The concentrations of the major cannabinoids and terpenes were determined, and different patterns were found among the chemotypes. In particular, the plants from chemotypes II and III needed more time to reach peak production of THCA, CBDA, and monoterpenes. Differences in the cannabigerolic acid development among the different chemotypes and between monoterpene and sesquiterpene evolution patterns were also observed. Plants of different chemotypes were clearly differentiated by their terpene content, and characteristic terpenes of each chemotype were identified.

¹H NMR and HPLC/DAD for Cannabis sativa L. chemotype distinction, extract profiling and specification

The medicinal use of different chemovars and extracts of Cannabis sativa L. requires standardization beyond ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) with complementing methods. We investigated the suitability of (1)H NMR key signals for distinction of four chemotypes measured in deuterated dimethylsulfoxide together with two new validated HPLC/DAD methods used for identification and extract profiling based on the main pattern of cannabinoids and other phenolics alongside the assayed content of THC, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG) their acidic counterparts (THCA, CBDA, CBGA), cannabinol (CBN) and cannflavin A and B. Effects on cell viability (MTT assay, HeLa) were tested. The dominant cannabinoid pairs allowed chemotype recognition via assignment of selective proton signals and via HPLC even in cannabinoid-low extracts from the THC, CBD and CBG type. Substantial concentrations of cannabinoid acids in non-heated extracts suggest their consideration for total values in chemotype distinction and specifications of herbal drugs and extracts. Cannflavin A/B are extracted and detected together with cannabinoids but always subordinated, while other phenolics can be accumulated via fractionation and detected in a wide fingerprint but may equally serve as qualitative marker only. Cell viability reduction in HeLa was more determined by the total cannabinoid content than by the specific cannabinoid profile. Therefore the analysis and labeling of total cannabinoids together with the content of THC and 2-4 lead cannabinoids are considered essential. The suitability of analytical methods and the range of compound groups summarized in group and ratio markers are discussed regarding plant classification and pharmaceutical specification.

Evolution of the content of THC and other major cannabinoids in drug-type cannabis cuttings and seedlings during growth of plants

In Europe, authorities frequently ask forensic laboratories to analyze seized cannabis plants to prove that cultivation was illegal (drug type and not fiber type). This is generally done with mature and flowering plants. However, authorities are often confronted with very young specimens. The aim of our study was to evaluate when the chemotype of cannabis plantlets can be surely determined through analysis of eight major cannabinoids content during growth. Drug-type seedlings and cuttings were cultivated, sampled each week, and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection. The chemotype of clones was recognizable at any developmental stage because of high total Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentrations even at the start of the cultivation. Conversely, right after germination seedlings contained a low total THC content, but it increased quickly with plant age up, allowing chemotype determination after 3 weeks. In conclusion, it is not necessary to wait for plants' flowering to identify drug-type cannabis generally cultivated in Europe.

Innovative development and validation of an HPLC/DAD method for the qualitative and quantitative determination of major cannabinoids in cannabis plant material

GC is commonly used for the analysis of cannabis samples, e.g. in forensic chemistry. However, as this method is based on heating of the sample, acidic forms of cannabinoids are decarboxylated into their neutral counterparts. Conversely, HPLC permits the determination of the original composition of plant cannabinoids by direct analysis. Several HPLC methods have been described in the literature, but most of them failed to separate efficiently all the cannabinoids or were not validated according to general guidelines. By use of an innovative methodology for modelling chromatographic responses, a simple and accurate HPLC/DAD method was developed for the quantification of major neutral and acidic cannabinoids present in cannabis plant material: Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), THC acid (THCA), cannabidiol (CBD), CBD acid (CBDA), cannabigerol (CBG), CBG acid (CBGA) and cannabinol (CBN). Delta8-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta8-THC) was determined qualitatively. Following the practice of design of experiments, predictive multilinear models were developed and used in order to find optimal chromatographic analytical conditions. The method was validated following an approach using accuracy profiles based on beta-expectation tolerance intervals for the total error measurement, and assessing the measurements uncertainty. This analytical method can be used for diverse applications, e.g. plant phenotype determination, evaluation of psychoactive potency and control of material quality.

Quantitative Analysis of Cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa Using 1H-NMR

A (1)H-NMR method has been developed for the quantitative analysis of pure cannabinoids and for cannabinoids present in Cannabis sativa plant material without any chromatographic purification. The experiment was performed by the analysis of singlets in the range of delta 4.0-7.0 in the (1)H-NMR spectrum, in which distinguishable signals of each cannabinoid are shown. Quantitation was performed by calculating the relative ratio of the peak area of selected proton signals of the target compounds to the known amount of the internal standard, anthracene. For this method no reference compounds are needed. It allows rapid and simple quantitation of cannabinoids with a final analysis time of only 5 min without the need for a pre-purification step.

High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and the corresponding acid in hemp containing foods with special regard to the fluorescence properties of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol

A solvent programmed reversed-phase HPLC method with UV detection for the determination of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A) in foods containing parts of hemp such as edible oil, herb-teas (infusion), herbal hemp or hempseed is presented. The THC peak is also detected by fluorescence. The detection limits with UV detection are 0.01 ng for THC and 0.05 ng for THCA-A and with fluorescence detection 0.1 ng for THC. The relative standard deviation under repeatability conditions of the chromatographic procedure is about 0.5% and that of the over-all analytical procedure for THC in vegetable oils 2% (concentration range of 10-100 mg/kg).

Capillary electrophoresis in clinical and forensic analysis: recent advances and breakthrough to routine applications

This paper is a comprehensive review article on capillary electrophoresis (CE) in clinical and forensic analysis. It is based upon the literature of 1997 and 1998, presents CE examples in major fields of application, and provides an overview of the key achievements encountered, including those associated with the analysis of drugs, serum proteins, hemoglobin variants, and nucleic acids. For CE in clinical and forensic analysis, the past two years witnessed a breakthrough to routine applications. As most coauthors of this review are associated with diagnostic or forensic laboratories now using CE on a routine basis, this review also contains data from routine applications in drug, protein, and DNA analysis. With the first-hand experience of providing analytical service under stringent quality control conditions, aspects of quality assurance, assay specifications for clinical and forensic CE and the pros and cons of this maturing, cost-and pollution-controlled age technology are also discussed.

Strategies for bioengineering the development and metabolism of glandular tissues in plants

Glandular tissues in plants produce a wide variety of commercially important chemicals. We review specific model systems that can be exploited for bioengineering the development and metabolism of these specialized structures, and the economic considerations that must be satisfied to permit commercially viable bioengineering approaches to specific chemicals and that constrain the choice of production systems.

Capillary electrochromatography of cannabinoids

The applicability of capillary electrochromatography (CEC) with photodiode array UV detection for the analysis of cannabinoids is presented. Baseline separation of seven cannabinoids (cannabigerol, cannabidiol, cannabinol, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabichromene, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid) is obtained using a 3-micron CEC Hypersil C18 capillary with an acetonitrile/phosphate (pH 2.57) mobile phase. The effects of acetonitrile concentration, buffer concentration, voltage, temperature, stationary phase, and column length on the separation of the cannabinoids were investigated. Good short- and long-term precision in retention times are observed, with significant improvement obtained using relative retention times with cannabinol as reference compound. Although short- and long-term peak area precisions are poor, satisfactory reproducibility is obtained using relative peak areas with cannabinol as reference compound. The applicability of the CEC methodology to drug seizures was demonstrated on marijuana and hashish. Using a high-sensitivity UV flow cell with an extended path length of 1.2 mm, concentration sensitivities approaching HPLC were obtained.

A preliminary study of the analysis of Cannabis by supercritical fluid chromatography with atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation mass spectroscopic detection

A rapid method is described for the analysis of Cannabis products by supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) coupled to atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-mass spectroscopic (APCI-MS) detection. The method had a shorter analysis time than GC-MS methods, without the need for derivatization prior to analysis. It was also faster than HPLC methods, with better resolution and definitive identification. Linearity of detector response to cannabidiol, delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabinol was established, the detection limits for mass on column being 0.55 ng, 1.20 ng, 0.69 ng and 2.10 ng respectively. The technique offers a means by which Cannabis products can be definitively identified in a single chromatographic run. Application to casework samples is described.