Drug-Assisted Intubation in the Prehospital Setting (Resource Document to NAEMSP Position Statement)

Feasibility of quality indicators on prehospital advanced airway management in a physician-staffed emergency medical service: survey-based assessment of the provider point of view

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to determine the feasibility of quality indicators (QIs) for prehospital advanced airway management (PAAM) from a provider point of view.

DESIGN

The study is a survey based feasibility assessment following field testing of QIs for PAAM.

SETTING

The study was performed in two physician staffed emergency medical services in Switzerland.

PARTICIPANTS

42 of the 44 emergency physicians who completed at least one case report form (CRF) dedicated to the collection of the QIs on PAAM between 1 January 2019 and 31 December 2021 participated in the study.

INTERVENTION

The data required to calculate the 17 QIs was systematically collected through a dedicated electronic CRF.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Primary outcomes were provider-related feasibility criteria: relevance and acceptance of the QIs, as well as reliability of the data collection. Secondary outcomes were effort to collect specific data and to complete the CRF.

RESULTS

Over the study period, 470 CRFs were completed, with a median of 11 per physician (IQR 4-17; range 1-48). The median time to complete the CRF was 7 min (IQR 3-16) and was considered reasonable by 95% of the physicians. Overall, 75% of the physicians assessed the set of QIs to be relevant, and 74% accepted that the set of QIs assessed the quality of PAAM. The reliability of data collection was rated as good or excellent for each of the 17 QIs, with the lowest rated for the following 3 QIs: duration of preoxygenation, duration of laryngoscopy and occurrence of desaturation during laryngoscopy.

CONCLUSIONS

Collection of QIs on PAAM appears feasible. Electronic medical records and technological solutions facilitating automatic collection of vital parameters and timing during the procedure could improve the reliability of data collection for some QIs. Studies in other services are needed to determine the external validity of our results.

Looking back to inform the future: a review of published paramedicine research

OBJECTIVE

Paramedicine has evolved in ways that may outpace the science informing these changes. Examining the scholarly pursuits of paramedicine may provide insights into the historical academic focus, which may inform future endeavors and evolution of paramedicine. The objective of this study was to explore the existing discourse in paramedicine research to reflect on the academic pursuits of this community.

METHODS

We searched Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Google Scholar and Web of Science from January, 2006 to April, 2019. We further refined the yield using a ranking formula that prioritized journals most relevant to paramedicine, then sampled randomly in two-year clusters for full text review. We extracted literature type, study topic and context, then used elements of qualitative content, thematic, and discourse analysis to further describe the sample.

RESULTS

The initial search yielded 99,124 citations, leaving 54,638 after removing duplicates and 7084 relevant articles from nine journals after ranking. Subsequently, 2058 articles were included for topic categorization, and 241 papers were included for full text analysis after random sampling. Overall, this literature reveals: 1) a relatively narrow topic focus, given the majority of research has concentrated on general operational activities and specific clinical conditions and interventions (e.g., resuscitation, airway management, etc.); 2) a limited methodological (and possibly philosophical) focus, given that most were observational studies (e.g., cohort, case control, and case series) or editorial/commentary; 3) a variety of observed trajectories of academic attention, indicating where the evolution of paramedicine is evident, areas where scope of practice is uncertain, and areas that aim to improve skills historically considered core to paramedic clinical practice.

CONCLUSIONS

Included articles suggest a relatively narrow topic focus, a limited methodological focus, and observed trajectories of academic attention indicating where research pursuits and priorities are shifting. We have highlighted that the academic focus may require an alignment with aspirational and direction setting documents aimed at developing paramedicine. This review may be a snapshot of scholarly activity that reflects a young medically directed profession and systems focusing on a few high acuity conditions, with aspirations of professional autonomy contributing to the health and social well-being of communities.

Emergency scalpel cricothyroidotomy use in a prehospital trauma service: a 20-year review

Background

This study aimed to determine the rate of scalpel cricothyroidotomy conducted by a physician–paramedic prehospital trauma service over 20 years and to identify indications for, and factors associated with the intervention.

Methods

A retrospective observational study was conducted from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2019 using clinical database records. This study was conducted in a physician–paramedic prehospital trauma service, serving a predominantly urban population of approximately 10 million in an area of approximately 2500 km2.

Results

Over 20 years, 37 725 patients were attended by the service, and 72 patients received a scalpel cricothyroidotomy. An immediate ‘primary’ cricothyroidotomy was performed in 17 patients (23.6%), and ‘rescue’ cricothyroidotomies were performed in 55 patients (76.4%). Forty-one patients (56.9%) were already in traumatic cardiac arrest during cricothyroidotomy. Thirty-two patients (44.4%) died on scene, and 32 (44.4%) subsequently died in hospital. Five patients (6.9%) survived to hospital discharge, and three patients (4.2%) were lost to follow-up. The most common indication for primary cricothyroidotomy was mechanical entrapment of patients (n=5, 29.4%). Difficult laryngoscopy, predominantly due to airway soiling with blood (n=15, 27.3%) was the most common indication for rescue cricothyroidotomy. The procedure was successful in 97% of cases. During the study period, 6570 prehospital emergency anaesthetics were conducted, of which 30 underwent rescue cricothyroidotomy after failed tracheal intubation (0.46%, 95% CI 0.31% to 0.65%).

Conclusions

This study identifies a number of indications leading to scalpel cricothyroidotomy both as a primary procedure or after failed intubation. The main indication for scalpel cricothyroidotomy in our service was as a rescue airway for failed laryngoscopy due to a large volume of blood in the airway. Despite high levels of procedural success, 56.9% of patients were already in traumatic cardiac arrest during cricothyroidotomy, and overall mortality in patients with trauma receiving this procedure was 88.9% in our service.

A systematic review and meta-analysis comparing mortality in pre-hospital tracheal intubation to emergency department intubation in trauma patients

Background

Pre-hospital endotracheal intubation is frequently used for trauma patients in many emergency medical systems. Despite a wide range of publications in the field, it is debated whether the intervention is associated with a favourable outcome, when compared to more conservative airway measures.

Methods

A systematic literature search was conducted to identify interventional and observational studies where the mortality rates of adult trauma patients undergoing pre-hospital endotracheal intubation were compared to those undergoing emergency department intubation.

Results

Twenty-one studies examining 35,838 patients were included. The median mortality rate in patients undergoing pre-hospital intubation was 48% (range 8–94%), compared to 29% (range 6–67%) in patients undergoing intubation in the emergency department. Odds ratios were in favour of emergency department intubation both in crude and adjusted mortality, with 2.56 (95% CI: 2.06, 3.18) and 2.59 (95% CI: 1.97, 3.39), respectively. The overall quality of evidence is very low. Twelve of the twenty-one studies found a significantly higher mortality rate after pre-hospital intubation, seven found no significant differences, one found a positive effect, and for one study an analysis of the mortality rate was beyond the scope of the article.

Conclusions

The rationale for wide and unspecific indications for pre-hospital intubation seems to lack support in the literature, despite several publications involving a relatively large number of patients. Pre-hospital intubation is a complex intervention where guidelines and research findings should be approached cautiously. The association between pre-hospital intubation and a higher mortality rate does not necessarily contradict the importance of the intervention, but it does call for a thorough investigation by clinicians and researchers into possible causes for this finding.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13054-017-1787-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Student paramedic rapid sequence intubation in Johannesburg, South Africa: A case series

Introduction

Pre-hospital rapid sequence intubation was introduced within paramedic scope of practice in South Africa seven years ago. Since then, little data has been published on this high-risk intervention as practiced operationally or by students learning rapid sequence intubation in the pre-hospital environment. The objective of this study was to describe a series of pre-hospital rapid sequence intubation cases, including those that South African University paramedic students had participated in.

Methods

A University clinical learning database was searched for all endotracheal intubation cases involving the use of neuromuscular blockers between 1 January 2011 and 31 December 2015. Data from selected cases were extracted and analysed descriptively.

Results

Data indicated that most patients were young adult trauma victims with a dominant injury mechanism of vehicle-related accidents. The majority of cases utilised ketamine and suxamethonium, with a low rate of additional paralytic medication administration. 63% and 72% of patients received post-intubation sedation and analgesia, respectively. The overall intubation success rate from complete records was 99.6%, with a first pass success rate of 87.9%. Students were successful in 92.4% of attempts with a first-pass success rate of 85.2%. Five percent of patients experienced cardiac arrest between rapid sequence intubation and hospital arrival.

Discussion

Students demonstrated a good intubation success and first pass-success rate. However, newly qualified paramedics require strict protocols, clinical governance, and support to gain experience and perform pre-hospital rapid sequence intubation at an acceptable level in operational practice. More research is needed to understand the low rate of post-intubation paralysis, along with non-uniform administration of post-intubation sedation and analgesia, and the 5% prevalence of cardiac arrest.

Evaluation of the impact of implementing the emergency medical services traumatic brain injury guidelines in Arizona: the Excellence in Prehospital Injury Care (EPIC) study methodology

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) exacts a great toll on society. Fortunately, there is growing evidence that the management of TBI in the early minutes after injury may significantly reduce morbidity and mortality. In response, evidence-based prehospital and in-hospital TBI treatment guidelines have been established by authoritative bodies. However, no large studies have yet evaluated the effectiveness of implementing these guidelines in the prehospital setting. This article describes the background, design, implementation, emergency medical services (EMS) treatment protocols, and statistical analysis of a prospective, controlled (before/after), statewide study designed to evaluate the effect of implementing the EMS TBI guidelines-the Excellence in Prehospital Injury Care (EPIC) study (NIH/NINDS R01NS071049, "EPIC"; and 3R01NS071049-S1, "EPIC4Kids"). The specific aim of the study is to test the hypothesis that statewide implementation of the international adult and pediatric EMS TBI guidelines will significantly reduce mortality and improve nonmortality outcomes in patients with moderate or severe TBI. Furthermore, it will specifically evaluate the effect of guideline implementation on outcomes in the subgroup of patients who are intubated in the field. Over the course of the entire study (~9 years), it is estimated that approximately 25,000 patients will be enrolled.

[Critical incidents in preclinical emergency airway management : Evaluation of the CIRS emergency medicine databank]

BACKGROUND

Many patients are victims of disastrous incidents during medical interventions. One of the obligations of physicians is to identify these incidents and to subsequently develop preventive strategies in order to prevent future events. Airway management and prehospital emergency medicine are of particular interest as both categories frequently show very dynamic developments. Incidents in this particular area can lead to serious injury but at the same time it has never been analyzed what kind of incidents might harm patients during prehospital airway management.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The German website http://www.cirs-notfallmedizin.de (CIRS critical incident reporting systems) offers anonymous reporting of critical incidents in prehospital emergency medicine. All incidents reported between 2005 and 2012 were screened to identify those which were concerned with airway management and four experts in this field analyzed the incidents and performed a root cause analysis.

RESULTS

The database contained 845 reports. The authors considered 144 reports to be airway management related and identified 10 root causes: indications for intubation but no intubation performed (n = 8), no indications for intubation but intubation attempt performed (n = 7), wrong medication (n = 25), insufficient practical skills (n = 46), no use of alternative airway management (n = 7), insufficient handling before or after intubation (n = 27), defect equipment (n = 28), lack of equipment (n = 31), others (n = 18) and factors that cannot be influenced (n = 12).

CONCLUSIONS

The incidents that were reported via the website http://www.cirs-notfallmedizin.de and that occurred during airway management in prehospital emergency medicine are described. To improve practical airway management skills of emergency physicians are one of the most important tasks in order to prevent critical incidents and are discussed in the article.

Reversal of succinylcholine induced apnea with an organophosphate scavenging recombinant butyrylcholinesterase

BACKGROUND

Concerns about the safety of paralytics such as succinylcholine to facilitate endotracheal intubation limit their use in prehospital and emergency department settings. The ability to rapidly reverse paralysis and restore respiratory drive would increase the safety margin of an agent, thus permitting the pursuit of alternative intubation strategies. In particular, patients who carry genetic or acquired deficiency of butyrylcholinesterase, the serum enzyme responsible for succinylcholine hydrolysis, are susceptible to succinylcholine-induced apnea, which manifests as paralysis, lasting hours beyond the normally brief half-life of succinylcholine. We hypothesized that intravenous administration of plant-derived recombinant BChE, which also prevents mortality in nerve agent poisoning, would rapidly reverse the effects of succinylcholine.

METHODS

Recombinant butyrylcholinesterase was produced in transgenic plants and purified. Further analysis involved murine and guinea pig models of succinylcholine toxicity. Animals were treated with lethal and sublethal doses of succinylcholine followed by administration of butyrylcholinesterase or vehicle. In both animal models vital signs and overall survival at specified intervals post succinylcholine administration were assessed.

RESULTS

Purified plant-derived recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase can hydrolyze succinylcholine in vitro. Challenge of mice with an LD100 of succinylcholine followed by BChE administration resulted in complete prevention of respiratory inhibition and concomitant mortality. Furthermore, experiments in symptomatic guinea pigs demonstrated extremely rapid succinylcholine detoxification with complete amelioration of symptoms and no apparent complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Recombinant plant-derived butyrylcholinesterase was capable of counteracting and reversing apnea in two complementary models of lethal succinylcholine toxicity, completely preventing mortality. This study of a protein antidote validates the feasibility of protection and treatment of overdose from succinylcholine as well as other biologically active butyrylcholinesterase substrates.

Association of out-of-hospital advanced airway management with outcomes after traumatic brain injury and hemorrhagic shock in the ROC hypertonic saline trial

OBJECTIVE

Prior studies suggest adverse associations between out-of-hospital advanced airway management (AAM) and patient outcomes after major trauma. This secondary analysis of data from the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium Hypertonic Saline Trial evaluated associations between out-of-hospital AAM and outcomes in patients suffering isolated severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) or haemorrhagic shock.

METHODS

This multicentre study included adults with severe TBI (GCS ≤8) or haemorrhagic shock (SBP ≤70 mm Hg, or (SBP 71-90 mm Hg and heart rate ≥108 bpm)). We compared patients receiving out-of-hospital AAM with those receiving emergency department AAM. We evaluated the associations between airway strategy and patient outcomes (28-day mortality, and 6-month poor neurologic or functional outcome) and airway strategy, adjusting for confounders. Analysis was stratified by (1) patients with isolated severe TBI and (2) patients with haemorrhagic shock with or without severe TBI.

RESULTS

Of 2135 patients, we studied 1116 TBI and 528 shock; excluding 491 who died in the field, did not receive AAM or had missing data. In the shock cohort, out-of-hospital AAM was associated with increased 28-day mortality (adjusted OR 5.14; 95% CI 2.42 to 10.90). In TBI, out-of-hospital AAM showed a tendency towards increased 28-day mortality (adjusted OR 1.57; 95% CI 0.93 to 2.64) and 6-month poor functional outcome (1.63; 1.00 to 2.68), but these differences were not statistically significant. Out-of-hospital AAM was associated with poorer 6-month TBI neurologic outcome (1.80; 1.09 to 2.96).

CONCLUSIONS

Out-of-hospital AAM was associated with increased mortality after haemorrhagic shock. The adverse association between out-of-hospital AAM and injury outcome is most pronounced in patients with haemorrhagic shock.

Medical conditions associated with out-of-hospital endotracheal intubation

BACKGROUND

While prior studies describe the clinical presentation of patients requiring paramedic out-of-hospital endotracheal intubation (ETI), limited data characterize the underlying medical conditions or comorbidities.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the medical conditions and comorbidities of patients receiving successful paramedic out-of-hospital ETI.

METHODS

We used Pennsylvania statewide emergency medical services (EMS) clinical data, including all successful ETIs performed during 2003-2005. Using multiple imputation triple-match algorithms, we probabilistically linked EMS ETI to statewide death and hospital admission data. Each hospitalization record contained one primary and up to eight secondary diagnoses, classified according to the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM). We determined the proportion of patients in each major ICD-9-CM diagnostic group and subgroup. We calculated the Charlson Comorbidity Index score for each patient. Using binomial proportions with confidence intervals (CIs), we analyzed the data and combined imputed results using Rubin's method.

RESULTS

Across the imputed sets, we linked 25,733 (77.7% linkage) successful ETIs to death or hospital records; 56.3% patients died before and 43.7% survived to hospital admission. Of the 14,478 patients who died before hospital admission, most (92.7%; 95% CI: 92.5-93.3%) had presented to EMS in cardiac arrest. Of the 11,255 hospitalized patents, the leading primary diagnoses were circulatory diseases (32.0%; 95% CI: 30.2-33.7%), respiratory diseases (22.8%; 95% CI: 21.9-23.7%), and injury or poisoning (25.2%; 95% CI: 22.7-27.8%). Prominent primary diagnosis subgroups included asphyxia and respiratory failure (15.2%), traumatic brain injury and skull fractures (11.3%), acute myocardial infarction and ischemic heart disease (10.9%), poisonings and drug and alcohol disorders (6.7%), dysrhythmias (6.7%), hemorrhagic and nonhemorrhagic stroke (5.9%), acute heart failure and cardiomyopathies (5.6%), pneumonia and aspiration (4.9%), and sepsis, septicemia, and septic shock (3.2%). Most of the admitted ETI patients had a secondary circulatory (70.8%), respiratory (61.4%), or endocrine, nutritional, or metabolic (51.4%) secondary diagnosis. The mean Charlson Index score was 1.6 (95% CI: 1.5-1.7).

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of successful paramedic ETIs occur on patients with cardiac arrest and circulatory and respiratory conditions. Injuries, poisonings, and other conditions compromise smaller but important portions of the paramedic ETI pool. Patients undergoing ETI have multiple comorbidities. These findings may guide the systemic planning of paramedic airway management care and education.

Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation: resource document for the National Association of EMS Physicians position statement

The National Association of EMS Physicians (NAEMSP) believes that noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) is an important treatment modality for the prehospital management of acute dyspnea. This document serves as a resource to the NAEMSP position on prehospital NIPPV.

Out-of-hospital endotracheal intubation experience and patient outcomes

STUDY OBJECTIVE

Previous studies suggest improved patient outcomes for providers who perform high volumes of complex medical procedures. Out-of-hospital tracheal intubation is a difficult procedure. We seek to determine the association between rescuer procedural experience and patient survival after out-of-hospital tracheal intubation.

METHODS

We analyzed probabilistically linked Pennsylvania statewide emergency medicine services, hospital discharge, and death data of patients receiving out-of-hospital tracheal intubation. We defined tracheal intubation experience as cumulative tracheal intubation during 2000 to 2005; low=1 to 10 tracheal intubations, medium=11 to 25 tracheal intubations, high=26 to 50 tracheal intubations, and very high=greater than 50 tracheal intubations. We identified survival on hospital discharge of patients intubated during 2003 to 2005. Using generalized estimating equations, we evaluated the association between patient survival and out-of-hospital rescuer cumulative tracheal intubation experience, adjusted for clinical covariates.

RESULTS

During 2003 to 2005, 4,846 rescuers performed tracheal intubation. These individuals performed tracheal intubation on 33,117 patients during 2003 to 2005 and 62,586 patients during 2000 to 2005. Among 21,753 cardiac arrests, adjusted odds of survival was higher for patients intubated by rescuers with very high tracheal intubation experience; adjusted odds ratio (OR) versus low tracheal intubation experience: very high 1.48 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.15 to 1.89), high 1.13 (95% CI 0.98 to 1.31), and medium 1.02 (95% CI 0.91 to 1.15). Among 8,162 medical nonarrests, adjusted odds of survival were higher for patients intubated by rescuers with high and very high tracheal intubation experience; adjusted OR versus low tracheal intubation experience: very high 1.55 (95% CI 1.08 to 2.22), high 1.29 (95% CI 1.04 to 1.59), and medium 1.16 (95% CI 0.97 to 1.38). Among 3,202 trauma nonarrests, survival was not associated with rescuer tracheal intubation experience; adjusted OR versus low tracheal intubation experience: very high 1.84 (95% CI 0.89 to 3.81), high 1.25 (95% CI 0.85 to 1.85), and medium 0.92 (95% CI 0.67 to 1.26).

CONCLUSION

Rescuer procedural experience is associated with improved patient survival after out-of-hospital tracheal intubation of cardiac arrest and medical nonarrest patients. Rescuer procedural experience is not associated with patient survival after out-of-hospital tracheal intubation of trauma nonarrest patients.

A consensus-based template for uniform reporting of data from pre-hospital advanced airway management

Background

Advanced airway management is a critical intervention that can harm the patient if performed poorly. The available literature on this subject is rich, but it is difficult to interpret due to a huge variability and poor definitions. Several initiatives from large organisations concerned with airway management have recently propagated the need for guidelines and standards in pre-hospital airway management. Following the path of other initiatives to establish templates for uniform data reporting, like the many Utstein-style templates, we initiated and carried out a structured consensus process with international experts to establish a set of core data points to be documented and reported in cases of advanced pre-hospital airway management.

Methods

A four-step modified nominal group technique process was employed.

Results

The inclusion criterion for the template was defined as any patient for whom the insertion of an advanced airway device or ventilation was attempted. The data points were divided into three groups based on their relationship to the intervention, including system-, patient-, and post-intervention variables, and the expert group agreed on a total of 23 core data points. Additionally, the group defined 19 optional variables for which a consensus could not be achieved or the data were considered as valuable but not essential.

Conclusion

We successfully developed an Utstein-style template for documenting and reporting pre-hospital airway management. The core dataset for this template should be included in future studies on pre-hospital airway management to produce comparable data across systems and patient populations and will be implemented in systems that are influenced by the expert panel.

Paramedic perceptions of challenges in out-of-hospital endotracheal intubation

OBJECTIVE

Paramedics often perform endotracheal intubation (ETI), insertion of a breathing tube, on critically ill out-of-hospital patients. Recent studies highlight important paramedic ETI shortcomings including adverse events, errors, and poor outcomes resulting from this procedure. Little is known about workforce perceptions of these events. We sought to identify paramedic and physician perceptions regarding the challenges and pitfalls of out-of-hospital ETI.

METHODS

We conducted a qualitative study involving paramedic focus groups sessions and individual interviews with Emergency Medical Services (EMS) physician medical directors. We recorded and transcribed all sessions. We used inductive theory construction to examine, organize, and classify thematic patterns.

RESULTS

Fourteen paramedics and 6 physicians participated. Although paramedics and physicians recognized problems with paramedic ETI, all participants strongly felt that paramedics should continue to perform the procedure. Physicians and paramedics disagreed about the ability of paramedics to perform neuromuscular blockade-assisted intubation. Both groups identified aspects of paramedic education, skills acquisition, and maintenance as core issues. Participants also identified broader factors about the structure of emergency services, the role of the medical director, and workforce culture and professionalism.

CONCLUSION

Paramedics and EMS physicians attribute paramedic ETI performance to a myriad of factors involving EMS education, organization, oversight, retention, and professionalism. Efforts to improve ETI must include strategies to address multiple aspects of EMS operations and culture.

Prehospital care of the injured: what's new

Emergency medical services (EMS) play a critical role in the trauma system as the point of initial patient care and stabilization and in determining the regional flow of patients and the commitment of resources to the critically injured. Trauma surgeons and emergency physicians need to be involved in the organizational planning of EMS systems to ensure that uniform patient care protocols are developed for triage and treatment. Ongoing efforts should focus on addressing national variability in care provided after injury to ensure optimal outcome for patients in all regions. Through additional research, the best practice and optimal EMS system design will continue to be defined.

Prehospital Airway Management Complicated by Reported Pseudocholinesterase Deficiency

Patients with pseudocholinesterase deficiency can experience prolonged neuromuscular blockade if given succinylcholine or certain other drugs. We describe the case of a patient with a reported pseudocholinesterase deficiency requiring emergent prehospital airway management. Knowledge of the reported condition influenced airway management decisions.