1
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He M, Ditto JC, Gardner L, Machesky J, Hass-Mitchell TN, Chen C, Khare P, Sahin B, Fortner JD, Plata DL, Drollette BD, Hayden KL, Wentzell JJB, Mittermeier RL, Leithead A, Lee P, Darlington A, Wren SN, Zhang J, Wolde M, Moussa SG, Li SM, Liggio J, Gentner DR. Total organic carbon measurements reveal major gaps in petrochemical emissions reporting. Science 2024; 383:426-432. [PMID: 38271520 DOI: 10.1126/science.adj6233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Anthropogenic organic carbon emissions reporting has been largely limited to subsets of chemically speciated volatile organic compounds. However, new aircraft-based measurements revealed total gas-phase organic carbon emissions that exceed oil sands industry-reported values by 1900% to over 6300%, the bulk of which was due to unaccounted-for intermediate-volatility and semivolatile organic compounds. Measured facility-wide emissions represented approximately 1% of extracted petroleum, resulting in total organic carbon emissions equivalent to that from all other sources across Canada combined. These real-world observations demonstrate total organic carbon measurements as a means of detecting unknown or underreported carbon emissions regardless of chemical features. Because reporting gaps may include hazardous, reactive, or secondary air pollutants, fully constraining the impact of anthropogenic emissions necessitates routine, comprehensive total organic carbon monitoring as an inherent check on mass closure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan He
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jenna C Ditto
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Lexie Gardner
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jo Machesky
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Tori N Hass-Mitchell
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Christina Chen
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Peeyush Khare
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Bugra Sahin
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - John D Fortner
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Desiree L Plata
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Brian D Drollette
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Katherine L Hayden
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jeremy J B Wentzell
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Richard L Mittermeier
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Amy Leithead
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Patrick Lee
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Andrea Darlington
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sumi N Wren
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Junhua Zhang
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Samar G Moussa
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Shao-Meng Li
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - John Liggio
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Drew R Gentner
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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2
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Yang F, Mamun AA, Cheng I, Qiu X, Zhang L. Contributions of the oil sands sources to the ambient concentrations and deposition of particulate elements in the Canadian Athabasca oil sands region. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 898:165519. [PMID: 37451466 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
In this study, model sensitivity tests were conducted to investigate the relative contributions between emission sources of oil sands (OS) activities and other sources to the ambient concentrations and deposition of 29 particulate elements in the Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR) of Canada. Element emission sources from a recently developed emission database were grouped into three source sectors for elements in PM2.5 (OS-Industrial, OS-Dust, and Non-OS) and two source sectors for elements in PM2.5-10 (OS-All and Non-OS). The OS-Dust and OS-Industrial sectors (combined as one sector for PM2.5-10; OS-All) included element sources linked to dust and other industrial activities from the OS activities, respectively, whereas the Non-OS sector included remaining sources in the region, unrelated to the OS activities. The OS-Industrial, OS-Dust, and Non-OS emissions (tonnes/year) of all elements in PM2.5 were 326, 1430, and 562, respectively. The OS-All and Non-OS emissions (tonnes/year) of all elements in PM2.5-10 were 5890 and 2900, respectively. The element concentrations were simulated by the CALPUFF dispersion model. The sum of the domain averaged annual mean concentrations of all elements in PM2.5 and PM2.5-10 from all sources were 57.3 ng/m3 and 30.4 ng/m3, respectively. Except for Co (PM2.5 and PM2.5-10), Sb (PM2.5-10), and Sn (PM2.5-10), major proportions (≥ 59 %) of the ambient concentrations of the individual elements were linked to the OS source sector. Overall, the OS sector was responsible for 78 % and 68 % of the sum of the mean ambient concentrations of all elements in PM2.5 and PM2.5-10, respectively, which are close to the corresponding emission contributions (76 % and 67 %, respectively). Likewise, the bulk proportion (∼74 %) of the sum of the total atmospheric deposition of all elements was also associated with the OS sources. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks associated with inhalation exposure to airborne elements were below the recommended threshold risk levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuquan Yang
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada; SLR Consulting (Canada) Ltd, 100 Stone Road West, Suite 201, Guelph, Ontario N1G 5L3, Canada
| | - Abdulla Al Mamun
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Irene Cheng
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Xin Qiu
- SLR Consulting (Canada) Ltd, 100 Stone Road West, Suite 201, Guelph, Ontario N1G 5L3, Canada
| | - Leiming Zhang
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada.
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3
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Horb EC, Wentworth GR, Makar PA, Liggio J, Hayden K, Boutzis EI, Beausoleil DL, Hazewinkel RO, Mahaffey AC, Sayanda D, Wyatt F, Dubé MG. A decadal synthesis of atmospheric emissions, ambient air quality, and deposition in the oil sands region. INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 2022; 18:333-360. [PMID: 34676977 PMCID: PMC9299045 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
This review is part of a series synthesizing peer-reviewed literature from the past decade on environmental monitoring in the oil sands region (OSR) of northeastern Alberta. It focuses on atmospheric emissions, air quality, and deposition in and downwind of the OSR. Most published monitoring and research activities were concentrated in the surface-mineable region in the Athabasca OSR. Substantial progress has been made in understanding oil sands (OS)-related emission sources using multiple approaches: airborne measurements, satellite measurements, source emission testing, deterministic modeling, and source apportionment modeling. These approaches generally yield consistent results, indicating OS-related sources are regional contributors to nearly all air pollutants. Most pollutants exhibit enhanced air concentrations within ~20 km of surface-mining activities, with some enhanced >100 km downwind. Some pollutants (e.g., sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides) undergo transformations as they are transported through the atmosphere. Deposition rates of OS-related substances primarily emitted as fugitive dust are enhanced within ~30 km of surface-mining activities, whereas gaseous and fine particulate emissions have a more diffuse deposition enhancement pattern extending hundreds of kilometers downwind. In general, air quality guidelines are not exceeded, although these single-pollutant thresholds are not comprehensive indicators of air quality. Odor events have occurred in communities near OS industrial activities, although it can be difficult to attribute events to specific pollutants or sources. Nitrogen, sulfur, polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs), and base cations from OS sources occur in the environment, but explicit and deleterious responses of organisms to these pollutants are not as apparent across all study environments; details of biological monitoring are discussed further in other papers in this special series. However, modeling of critical load exceedances suggests that, at continued emission levels, ecological change may occur in future. Knowledge gaps and recommendations for future work to address these gaps are also presented. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2022;18:333-360. © 2021 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C. Horb
- Resource Stewardship DivisionAlberta Environment and ParksCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Gregory R. Wentworth
- Resource Stewardship DivisionAlberta Environment and ParksEdmontonAlbertaCanada
- Present address: Environmental Protection BranchEnvironment and Climate Change CanadaEdmontonAlbertaCanada
| | - Paul A. Makar
- Air Quality Research DivisionEnvironment and Climate Change CanadaTorontoOntarioCanada
| | - John Liggio
- Air Quality Research DivisionEnvironment and Climate Change CanadaTorontoOntarioCanada
| | - Katherine Hayden
- Air Quality Research DivisionEnvironment and Climate Change CanadaTorontoOntarioCanada
| | | | | | | | - Ashley C. Mahaffey
- Resource Stewardship DivisionAlberta Environment and ParksCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Diogo Sayanda
- Resource Stewardship DivisionAlberta Environment and ParksCalgaryAlbertaCanada
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4
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A microbial solution to oil sand pollution: Understanding the microbiomes, metabolic pathways and mechanisms involved in naphthenic acid (NA) biodegradation. ADV ECOL RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.aecr.2022.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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5
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Klemt WH, Brua RB, Culp JM, Hicks K, Wolfe BB, Hall RI. Evaluating Lower Athabasca River Sediment Metal Concentrations from Alberta Oil Sands Monitoring Programs Using Predevelopment Baselines. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:8817-8828. [PMID: 34105946 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Since 1997, sediment metal concentrations have been monitored in the Alberta Oil Sands Region (AOSR) of the Lower Athabasca River by the Regional Aquatics Monitoring Program (RAMP; 1997-2002), the Joint Oil Sands Monitoring Program (JOSM; 2012-2014), and the Oil Sands Monitoring Program (OSM; 2015-present). However, it has remained difficult to differentiate industrial sources from natural sources and quantify the extent of pollution due to inadequate knowledge of predevelopment reference conditions. Here, baselines were constructed using predevelopment (i.e., pre-1967) sediment concentrations of US EPA priority pollutants (Be, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb) and V, an element elevated in bitumen and associated waste materials, normalized to Al concentration in cores from floodplain and upland lakes within the AOSR to characterize the natural range of variability. The Lower Athabasca River sediment metal monitoring data were examined in the context of the predevelopment baselines. Most metals are below the threshold for minimal enrichment (<1.5x baseline) except for chromium (up to 4.8x) in some RAMP samples. The predevelopment baselines for sediment metal concentrations will be of particular importance as the oil sands industry potentially shifts from a no-release policy to the treatment and release of oil sands process waters directly to the Lower Athabasca River.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wynona H Klemt
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Robert B Brua
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, National Hydrology Research Centre, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Canada S7N 3H5
| | - Joseph M Culp
- Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario Canada N2L 3C5
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canadian Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario Canada L7R 4A6
| | - Keegan Hicks
- Alberta Environment and Parks, Resource Stewardship Division, 4938 89 Street, Edmonton, Alberta Canada T6E 5K1
| | - Brent B Wolfe
- Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario Canada N2L 3C5
| | - Roland I Hall
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario Canada N2L 3G1
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6
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Wren SN, Mihele CM, Lu G, Jiang Z, Wen D, Hayden K, Mittermeier RL, Staebler RM, Cober SG, Brook JR. Improving Insights on Air Pollutant Mixtures and Their Origins by Enhancing Local Monitoring in an Area of Intensive Resource Development. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:14936-14945. [PMID: 33186032 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
An "event-based" approach to characterize complex air pollutant mixtures was applied in the Oil Sands region of northern Alberta, Canada. This approach was developed to better-inform source characterization and attribution of the air pollution in the Indigenous community of Fort McKay, within the context of the lived experience of residents. Principal component analysis was used to identify the characteristics of primary pollutant mixtures, which were related to hydrocarbon emissions, fossil fuel combustion, dust, and oxidized and reduced sulfur compounds. Concentration distributions of indicator compounds were used to isolate sustained air pollution "events". Diesel-powered vehicles operating in the mines were found to be an important source during NOx events. Industry-specific volatile organic compound (VOC) profiles were used in a chemical mass balance model for source apportionment, which revealed that nearby oil sands operations contribute to 86% of the total mass of nine VOC species (2-methylpentane, hexane, heptane, octane, benzene, toluene, m,p-xylene, o-xylene, and ethylbenzene) during VOC events. Analyses of the frequency distribution of air pollution events indicate that Fort McKay is regularly impacted by multiple mixtures simultaneously, underscoring the limitations of an exceedance-based approach relying on a small number of air quality standards as the only tool to assess risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumi N Wren
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Cris M Mihele
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Gang Lu
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Zhimei Jiang
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Deyong Wen
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Katherine Hayden
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Richard L Mittermeier
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Ralf M Staebler
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Stewart G Cober
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Jeffrey R Brook
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health and Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 223 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5T 1R4, Canada
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7
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Ahad JME, Macdonald RW, Parrott JL, Yang Z, Zhang Y, Siddique T, Kuznetsova A, Rauert C, Galarneau E, Studabaker WB, Evans M, McMaster ME, Shang D. Polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) in the Canadian environment: A review of sampling techniques, strategies and instrumentation. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 266:114988. [PMID: 32679437 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A wide variety of sampling techniques and strategies are needed to analyze polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) and interpret their distributions in various environmental media (i.e., air, water, snow, soils, sediments, peat and biological material). In this review, we provide a summary of commonly employed sampling methods and strategies, as well as a discussion of routine and innovative approaches used to quantify and characterize PACs in frequently targeted environmental samples, with specific examples and applications in Canadian investigations. The pros and cons of different analytical techniques, including gas chromatography - flame ionization detection (GC-FID), GC low-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-LRMS), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet, fluorescence or MS detection, GC high-resolution MS (GC-HRMS) and compound-specific stable (δ13C, δ2H) and radiocarbon (Δ14C) isotope analysis are considered. Using as an example research carried out in Canada's Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR), where alkylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sulfur-containing dibenzothiophenes are frequently targeted, the need to move beyond the standard list of sixteen EPA priority PAHs and for adoption of an AOSR bitumen PAC reference standard are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M E Ahad
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada.
| | - Robie W Macdonald
- Institute of Ocean Sciences, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Sidney, BC, V8L 4B2, Canada
| | - Joanne L Parrott
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Zeyu Yang
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Yifeng Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2G3, Canada
| | - Tariq Siddique
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2G7, Canada
| | - Alsu Kuznetsova
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2G7, Canada
| | - Cassandra Rauert
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Elisabeth Galarneau
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, M3H 5T4, Canada
| | | | - Marlene Evans
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Mark E McMaster
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Dayue Shang
- Pacific Environmental Science Centre, Environment and Climate Change Canada, North Vancouver, BC, V7H 1B1, Canada
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8
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Altshuler SL, Ahad JME, Chow JC, Duane C, Dubé M, Legge AH, Percy KE, Stevenson ED, Watson JG. Advances in science and applications in air pollution monitoring: A case study on oil sands monitoring targeting ecosystem protection. JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (1995) 2019; 69:1133-1141. [PMID: 31437101 DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2019.1659192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason M E Ahad
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada , Québec , QC , Canada
| | - Judith C Chow
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology (SKLLQG), Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Xi'an, Shaanxi Province , People's Republic of China
- Desert Research Institute , Reno , NV , USA
| | - Calvin Duane
- Canadian Natural Resources Limited , Calgary , Alberta , Canada
| | - Monique Dubé
- Integrated Environmental Analytics & Prediction Branch, Alberta Environment and Parks , Edmonton , Alberta , Canada
| | | | - Kevin E Percy
- Atlantic Forest Research Collaborative, University of New Brunswick , Fredericton , New Brunswick , Canada
| | - Eric D Stevenson
- Bay Area Air Quality Management District , San Francisco , CA , USA
| | - John G Watson
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology (SKLLQG), Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Xi'an, Shaanxi Province , People's Republic of China
- Desert Research Institute , Reno , NV , USA
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9
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Altshuler SL, Stevenson ED. Advances in science and applications of air pollution monitoring: A case study on oil sands monitoring targeting ecosystem protection. JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (1995) 2019; 69:659-660. [PMID: 31124762 DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2019.1607690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
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