1
|
Fassini D, Wilkie IC, Pozzolini M, Ferrario C, Sugni M, Rocha MS, Giovine M, Bonasoro F, Silva TH, Reis RL. Diverse and Productive Source of Biopolymer Inspiration: Marine Collagens. Biomacromolecules 2021; 22:1815-1834. [PMID: 33835787 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Marine biodiversity is expressed through the huge variety of vertebrate and invertebrate species inhabiting intertidal to deep-sea environments. The extraordinary variety of "forms and functions" exhibited by marine animals suggests they are a promising source of bioactive molecules and provides potential inspiration for different biomimetic approaches. This diversity is familiar to biologists and has led to intensive investigation of metabolites, polysaccharides, and other compounds. However, marine collagens are less well-known. This review will provide detailed insight into the diversity of collagens present in marine species in terms of their genetics, structure, properties, and physiology. In the last part of the review the focus will be on the most common marine collagen sources and on the latest advances in the development of innovative materials exploiting, or inspired by, marine collagens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dario Fassini
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco, Guimarães, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Iain C Wilkie
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Marina Pozzolini
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Cinzia Ferrario
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Politiche Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy, Center for Complexity & Biosystems, Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milano, Italy
| | - Michela Sugni
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Politiche Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy, Center for Complexity & Biosystems, Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milano, Italy
| | - Miguel S Rocha
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco, Guimarães, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Marco Giovine
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Francesco Bonasoro
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Politiche Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy, Center for Complexity & Biosystems, Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milano, Italy
| | - Tiago H Silva
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco, Guimarães, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Rui L Reis
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco, Guimarães, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Perricone V, Grun TB, Marmo F, Langella C, Candia Carnevali MD. Constructional design of echinoid endoskeleton: main structural components and their potential for biomimetic applications. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2020; 16:011001. [PMID: 32927446 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/abb86b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The endoskeleton of echinoderms (Deuterostomia: Echinodermata) is of mesodermal origin and consists of cells, organic components, as well as an inorganic mineral matrix. The echinoderm skeleton forms a complex lattice-system, which represents a model structure for naturally inspired engineering in terms of construction, mechanical behaviour and functional design. The sea urchin (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) endoskeleton consists of three main structural components: test, dental apparatus and accessory appendages. Although, all parts of the echinoid skeleton consist of the same basic material, their microstructure displays a great potential in meeting several mechanical needs according to a direct and clear structure-function relationship. This versatility has allowed the echinoid skeleton to adapt to different activities such as structural support, defence, feeding, burrowing and cleaning. Although, constrained by energy and resource efficiency, many of the structures found in the echinoid skeleton are optimized in terms of functional performances. Therefore, these structures can be used as role models for bio-inspired solutions in various industrial sectors such as building constructions, robotics, biomedical and material engineering. The present review provides an overview of previous mechanical and biomimetic research on the echinoid endoskeleton, describing the current state of knowledge and providing a reference for future studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Perricone
- Dept. of Engineering, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Aversa, Italy
| | - Tobias B Grun
- Dept. of Invertebrate Paleontology, University of Florida, Florida Museum, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Francesco Marmo
- Dept. of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Carla Langella
- Dept. of Architecture and Industrial Design, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Aversa, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tozar A, Karahan İH. Electrophoretic deposition of collagen-reinforced HA/CTS biocomposite coatings. BIOINSPIRED BIOMIMETIC AND NANOBIOMATERIALS 2019. [DOI: 10.1680/jbibn.19.00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the biomimetic approach described as reverse engineering by trying to copy the excellent concepts of nature and taking nature as a model has been used. In order to mimic the structure of natural bone, hydroxyapatite (HA), chitosan (CTS) and collagen have been combined as a novel type of biocomposite coating. HA/CTS/collagen biocomposite coatings have been successfully electrophoretically deposited on Ti6Al4V biomedical implants. A novel type of a polyelectrolyte consisting of ethanol, water and isopropyl alcohol has been used for the electrophoretic deposition process. The effect of collagen concentration on the structural and corrosion protection performance of the biocomposite coatings has been investigated by X-ray diffraction, field-emission scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, potentiodynamic polarization (Tafel extrapolation) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy techniques. The electrophoretically deposited HA/CTS/collagen biocomposite coatings have exhibited corrosion protection against simulated physiological body fluid up to five times better than that of bare Ti6Al4V alloy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Tozar
- Physics Department, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Mustafa Kemal University, Antakya, Turkey
| | - İsmail Hakkı Karahan
- Physics Department, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Mustafa Kemal University, Antakya, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ultrastructural and biochemical characterization of mechanically adaptable collagenous structures in the edible sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. ZOOLOGY 2015; 118:147-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2014.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
5
|
Sugni M, Fassini D, Barbaglio A, Biressi A, Di Benedetto C, Tricarico S, Bonasoro F, Wilkie IC, Candia Carnevali MD. Comparing dynamic connective tissue in echinoderms and sponges: morphological and mechanical aspects and environmental sensitivity. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 93:123-132. [PMID: 24008006 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Echinoderms and sponges share a unique feature that helps them face predators and other environmental pressures. They both possess collagenous tissues with adaptable viscoelastic properties. In terms of morphology these structures are typical connective tissues containing collagen fibrils, fibroblast- and fibroclast-like cells, as well as unusual components such as, in echinoderms, neurosecretory-like cells that receive motor innervation. The mechanisms underpinning the adaptability of these tissues are not completely understood. Biomechanical changes can lead to an abrupt increase in stiffness (increasing protection against predation) or to the detachment of body parts (in response to a predator or to adverse environmental conditions) that are regenerated. Apart from these advantages, the responsiveness of echinoderm and sponge collagenous tissues to ionic composition and temperature makes them potentially vulnerable to global environmental changes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michela Sugni
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Dario Fassini
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Alice Barbaglio
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Anna Biressi
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | | | - Serena Tricarico
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Bonasoro
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Iain C Wilkie
- Department of Life Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Rd, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ribeiro AR, Barbaglio A, Oliveira MJ, Ribeiro CC, Wilkie IC, Candia Carnevali MD, Barbosa MA. Matrix metalloproteinases in a sea urchin ligament with adaptable mechanical properties. PLoS One 2012; 7:e49016. [PMID: 23173042 PMCID: PMC3500250 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutable collagenous tissues (MCTs) of echinoderms show reversible changes in tensile properties (mutability) that are initiated and modulated by the nervous system via the activities of cells known as juxtaligamental cells. The molecular mechanism underpinning this mechanical adaptability has still to be elucidated. Adaptable connective tissues are also present in mammals, most notably in the uterine cervix, in which changes in stiffness result partly from changes in the balance between matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). There have been no attempts to assess the potential involvement of MMPs in the echinoderm mutability phenomenon, apart from studies dealing with a process whose relationship to the latter is uncertain. In this investigation we used the compass depressor ligaments (CDLs) of the sea-urchin Paracentrotus lividus. The effect of a synthetic MMP inhibitor - galardin - on the biomechanical properties of CDLs in different mechanical states (“standard”, “compliant” and “stiff”) was evaluated by dynamic mechanical analysis, and the presence of MMPs in normal and galardin-treated CDLs was determined semi-quantitatively by gelatin zymography. Galardin reversibly increased the stiffness and storage modulus of CDLs in all three states, although its effect was significantly lower in stiff than in standard or compliant CDLs. Gelatin zymography revealed a progressive increase in total gelatinolytic activity between the compliant, standard and stiff states, which was possibly due primarily to higher molecular weight components resulting from the inhibition and degradation of MMPs. Galardin caused no change in the gelatinolytic activity of stiff CDLs, a pronounced and statistically significant reduction in that of standard CDLs, and a pronounced, but not statistically significant, reduction in that of compliant CDLs. Our results provide evidence that MMPs may contribute to the variable tensility of the CDLs, in the light of which we provide an updated hypothesis for the regulatory mechanism controlling MCT mutability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana R. Ribeiro
- INEB- Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, NEWTherapies Group, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- FEUP- Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Departamento de Engenharia Metalúrgica e de Materiais, Porto, Portugal
- * E-mail: (ARR); (MAB)
| | - Alice Barbaglio
- Life Sciences Department, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Maria J. Oliveira
- INEB- Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, NEWTherapies Group, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- FMUP- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Cristina C. Ribeiro
- INEB- Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, NEWTherapies Group, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- ISEP-Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Departamento de Física, Porto, Portugal
| | - Iain C. Wilkie
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland
| | | | - Mário A. Barbosa
- INEB- Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, NEWTherapies Group, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- FEUP- Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Departamento de Engenharia Metalúrgica e de Materiais, Porto, Portugal
- ICBAS- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- * E-mail: (ARR); (MAB)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Evolution of a novel muscle design in sea urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). PLoS One 2012; 7:e37520. [PMID: 22624043 PMCID: PMC3356314 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The sea urchin (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) masticatory apparatus, or Aristotle's lantern, is a complex structure composed of numerous hard and soft components. The lantern is powered by various paired and unpaired muscle groups. We describe how one set of these muscles, the lantern protractor muscles, has evolved a specialized morphology. This morphology is characterized by the formation of adaxially-facing lobes perpendicular to the main orientation of the muscle, giving the protractor a frilled aspect in horizontal section. Histological and ultrastructural analyses show that the microstructure of frilled muscles is largely identical to that of conventional, flat muscles. Measurements of muscle dimensions in equally-sized specimens demonstrate that the frilled muscle design, in comparison to that of the flat muscle type, considerably increases muscle volume as well as the muscle's surface directed towards the interradial cavity, a compartment of the peripharyngeal coelom. Scanning electron microscopical observations reveal that the insertions of frilled and flat protractor muscles result in characteristic muscle scars on the stereom, reflecting the shapes of individual muscles. Our comparative study of 49 derived "regular" echinoid species using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows that frilled protractor muscles are found only in taxa belonging to the families Toxopneustidae, Echinometridae, and Strongylocentrotidae. The onset of lobe formation during ontogenesis varies between species of these three families. Because frilled protractor muscles are best observed in situ, the application of a non-invasive imaging technique was crucial for the unequivocal identification of this morphological character on a large scale. Although it is currently possible only to speculate on the functional advantages which the frilled muscle morphology might confer, our study forms the anatomical and evolutionary framework for future analyses of this unusual muscle design among sea urchins.
Collapse
|
8
|
Barbaglio A, Tricarico S, Ribeiro A, Ribeiro C, Sugni M, Di Benedetto C, Wilkie I, Barbosa M, Bonasoro F, Candia Carnevali MD. The mechanically adaptive connective tissue of echinoderms: its potential for bio-innovation in applied technology and ecology. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2012; 76:108-113. [PMID: 21864892 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2011.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2011] [Revised: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 07/28/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Echinoderms possess unique connective tissues, called mutable collagenous tissues (MCTs), which undergo nervously mediated, drastic and reversible or irreversible changes in their mechanical properties. Connective tissue mutability influences all aspects of echinoderm biology and is a key-factor in the ecological success of the phylum. Due to their sensitivity to endogenous or exogenous agents, MCTs may be targets for a number of common pollutants, with potentially drastic effects on vital functions. Besides its ecological relevance, MCT represents a topic with relevance to several applied fields. A promising research route looks at MCTs as a source of inspiration for the development of novel biomaterials. This contribution presents a review of MCT biology, which incorporates recent ultrastructural, biomolecular and biochemical analyses carried out in a biotechnological context.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Barbaglio
- Biology Dept., University of Milan, via Celoria 26, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ribeiro AR, Barbaglio A, Benedetto CD, Ribeiro CC, Wilkie IC, Carnevali MDC, Barbosa MA. New insights into mutable collagenous tissue: correlations between the microstructure and mechanical state of a sea-urchin ligament. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24822. [PMID: 21935473 PMCID: PMC3173489 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The mutable collagenous tissue (MCT) of echinoderms has the ability to undergo rapid and reversible changes in passive mechanical properties that are initiated and modulated by the nervous system. Since the mechanism of MCT mutability is poorly understood, the aim of this work was to provide a detailed morphological analysis of a typical mutable collagenous structure in its different mechanical states. The model studied was the compass depressor ligament (CDL) of a sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus), which was characterized in different functional states mimicking MCT mutability. Transmission electron microscopy, histochemistry, cryo-scanning electron microscopy, focused ion beam/scanning electron microscopy, and field emission gun-environmental scanning electron microscopy were used to visualize CDLs at the micro- and nano-scales. This investigation has revealed previously unreported differences in both extracellular and cellular constituents, expanding the current knowledge of the relationship between the organization of the CDL and its mechanical state. Scanning electron microscopies in particular provided a three-dimensional overview of CDL architecture at the micro- and nano-scales, and clarified the micro-organization of the ECM components that are involved in mutability. Further evidence that the juxtaligamental cells are the effectors of these changes in mechanical properties was provided by a correlation between their cytology and the tensile state of the CDLs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana R Ribeiro
- Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Biomaterials Division, NEWTherapies Group, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wilkie IC. Mutable collagenous tissue: overview and biotechnological perspective. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR AND SUBCELLULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 39:221-50. [PMID: 17152700 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-27683-1_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
The mutable collagenous tissue (MCT) of echinoderms can undergo extreme changes in passive mechanical properties within a timescale of less than 1 s to a few minutes, involving a mechanism that is under direct neural control and coordinated with the activities of muscles. MCT occurs at a variety of anatomical locations in all echinoderm classes, is involved in every investigated echinoderm autotomy mechanism, and provides a mechanism for the energy-sparing maintenance of posture. It is therefore crucially important for the biology of extant echinoderms. This chapter summarises current knowledge of the physiology and organisation of MCT, with particular attention being given to its molecular organisation and the molecular mechanism of mutability. The biotechnological potential of MCT is discussed. It is argued that MCT could be a source of, or inspiration for, (1) new pharmacological agents and strategies designed to manipulate therapeutically connective tissue mechanical properties and (2) new composite materials with biomedical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I C Wilkie
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, 70 Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4 OBA, Scotland, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Wilkie IC. Is muscle involved in the mechanical adaptability of echinoderm mutable collagenous tissue? J Exp Biol 2002; 205:159-65. [PMID: 11821482 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.205.2.159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
The mutable collagenous tissue (MCT) of echinoderms has the capacity to change its mechanical properties in a time scale of less than 1 s to a few minutes under the influence of the nervous system. Although accumulating evidence indicates that the mechanical adaptability of MCT is due primarily to the modulation of interactions between components of the extracellular matrix, the presence of muscle in a few mutable collagenous structures has led some workers to suggest that contractile cells may play an important role in the phenomenon of variable tensility and to call for a re-evaluation of the whole MCT concept. This contribution summarises present information on MCT and appraises the argument implicating muscle in its unique mechanical behaviour. It is concluded that there is no evidence that the variability of the passive mechanical properties of any mutable collagenous structure is due to muscle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I C Wilkie
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, Scotland.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Wilkie IC, Carnevali MDC, Andrietti F. Mechanical properties of the peristomial membrane of the cidaroid sea-urchinStylocidaris affinis. J Zool (1987) 1996. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1996.tb05413.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
13
|
Bonasoro F, Carnevali MDC, Wilkie IC. The peristomial membrane of regular sea‐urchins: Functional morphology of the epidermis and coelomic lining inParacentrotus lividus(Lamarck). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995. [DOI: 10.1080/11250009509356060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|