Long-term effects on adult attachment in German occupation children born after World War II in comparison with a birth-cohort-matched representative sample of the German general population

Psychosocial consequences of growing up as Austrian occupation children in post-World-War II Austria

Background: During the post-World War II occupation of Austria, approximately 20,000-30,000 'children born of war' (CBOW), also called occupation children were born through intimate contacts between Austrian women and occupation soldiers. Research on other CBOW populations indicates that CBOW mostly grow up under difficult conditions, sometimes with strong long-term mental health consequences.Objective: To examine whether comparable psychosocial consequences can be found in Austrian occupation children (AOC), a first quantitative study was carried out.Method: Child maltreatment, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and somatization, and general life satisfaction were assessed in a sample of 98 AOC using self-report instruments. Results were compared to a sample of German occupation children (GOC; N = 146).Results: High prevalence of above threshold full (10.2%) and partial (14.3%) PTSD, somatic (16.3%) and depressive (11.1%) symptomatology were found in AOC. They were at high risk of child maltreatment (e.g. emotional abuse: 53.6%), which was associated with current symptomatology. Notably, AOC tended to report high levels of general life satisfaction. No differences were found between GOC and AOC.Conclusions: Findings highlight the complex and long-term effects of developmental conditions and childhood maltreatment on mental health of CBOW, even decades later. Findings of high life satisfaction provide evidence of resilience and maturation processes across the lifespan.

"If I was with my father such discrimination wouldn't exist, I could be happy like other people": a qualitative analysis of stigma among peacekeeper fathered children in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Background

The United Nations (UN) Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO) comprises the largest and longest serving peacekeeping operation to date. Since the launch of the mission in 1999, sexual relations between UN peacekeepers and the local population regularly occur; some resulting in children being conceived. Reports have indicated that women and girls bearing children from such relations face difficult socio-economic realities. The present study is the first to explore the situation of peacekeeper fathered children (PKFC) through a qualitative analysis that includes interview material from mothers and child participants.

Methods

The article uses theories from stigma research to illustrate how children conceived through sexual relations with UN peacekeepers integrate into social networks. We conducted a case study of mothers and their PKFC at different sites of UN peacekeeping (UNPK) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Based on 95 in-depth interviews held in 2018, a thematic qualitative analysis examined experiences of stigma and discrimination. In order to understand the challenges of mothers and children from a transgenerational perspective, we evaluated perceptions of rejection rooted in the mother-child relationship.

Results

Of the mothers and children surveyed, a large majority struggled with stigmatizing behaviour by family and/or community members. PKFC perceived their discrimination to be based upon their mixed ethnicity, fatherlessness, illegitimacy at birth, as well as a lack of resources and opportunity. Mothers most often attributed their stigma to economic deprivation, extra-marital sexual relations, single parenting and being associated with UNPK. Parallels in the experiences of mothers and children suggest a bi-directional transmission of status loss and stigma between generations.

Conclusions

This is the first empirical study to compare the situation of PKFC and their mothers in any country of UNPK deployment. The findings highlight multiple burdens that affect their daily lives and illustrate an interplay between drivers of stigmatization for mothers and children. The overarching needs identified are financial, and these call for action regarding policies and programmes that provide resources to those concerned. The results further demonstrate the need for psychosocial support that considers transgenerational dynamics and both mothers and children as core addressees of assistance.

Childhood maltreatment in children born of occupation after WWII in Germany and its association with mental disorders

BACKGROUND

Children born of war are a common phenomenon of conflict. In the aftermath of World War II, more than 200,000 German occupation children (GOC) were fathered by occupation soldiers and born to local women. GOC often grew up under difficult conditions and showed high prevalence rates of mental disorders even decades later.

METHODS

Experiences of childhood maltreatment and their association with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, and somatization in GOC (N = 146) are investigated and compared with a representative birth-cohort-matched sample (BCMS) from the German general population (N = 920).

RESULTS

Outcomes show significantly higher prevalence rates of emotional abuse/neglect, physical, and sexual abuse in GOC compared to BCMS. All five subtypes of childhood maltreatment increase the risk of PTSD and somatoform syndrome; depressive syndromes are associated with emotional abuse/neglect and physical abuse. GOC were at high risk of childhood maltreatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings underline the complex, long-term impact of developmental conditions and childhood maltreatment on mental disorders even decades later.