Prospective parenting: sexual identity and intercultural trajectories

Parenthood desire, perceived parenthood stigma, and barriers to achieving parenthood in childless sexual minority men

PURPOSE

To examine the parenthood desire, perceived parenthood stigma, and barriers to achieving parenthood among sexual minority men (SMM) in Canada, and to investigate factors influencing their fertility and assisted reproductive knowledge.

METHODS

Data were collected from March to mid-June 2023 using a 78-item anonymous online survey. Childless cisgender SMM (age 18+) living in Canada were recruited from the LGBTQIA+ community outside the fertility care networks. Chi-square, t-tests, ANOVA, reliability tests, Spearman's correlation, and hierarchical regression model were used for analysis.

RESULTS

Over 160 people clicked the survey hyperlink during the study period and 112 completed surveys were analyzed. The mean age of participants was 33.2±8.5 (range: 19.7-60.0). Having a child by any means was "quite"/"very" important to 35.7% (n=40), yet 56.0% (n=61) thought it was "unlikely" to achieve parenthood. Financial readiness (n=90, 85.7%) and relationship stability (n=86, 81.9%) were the two most "important" parenthood considerations. Participants who were non-white (p=0.017), under age 30 (p=0.008), and had no siblings (p=0.024) had significantly higher means of parenthood desire compared to others. The final hierarchical regression model explained 43% of the variance in the knowledge scores (R2adj =0.353), predicted by the levels of (i) education (β=0.37, p<0.001), (ii) family acceptance of sexual orientation (β=0.39, p=0.004), and (iii) parenthood desire (β=0.27, p=0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

With an increasing number of SMM desiring children, it is pivotal to advance family-building equality through improving their fertility and assisted reproductive knowledge, removing disparities in accessing adoption and assisted reproductive services, and decreasing social stigma against SMM having children.

Male homoparenting and its challenges: an integrative literature review

This study aims to elucidate the challenges faced in the exercise of male homoparenting, through an integrative literature review. Following PRISMA guidelines, empirical studies from the last 22 years were analyzed, independently collected by four researchers using the PubMed and APA PsychNet databases, with the descriptors "Homosexuality, Male" and "Father". The results reveal the unique and complex reality faced by homosexual men in the parental context. While some studies highlight significant challenges, such as stigmas and social prejudices, others do not observe such difficulties. The decision to become a father among homosexual men is influenced by factors specific to their reality, in a context where parenthood is not widely accepted. The findings of this study emphasize the need to understand the complex interactions among individual, social, and cultural factors in male homoparenting. In summary, this study highlights the need for inclusive and diversity-sensitive approaches to support family well-being.

Motives for desiring children among individuals of different sexual-romantic orientations: a cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

Little is known about the reasoning behind the desire to have children in non-heterosexual individuals. This study compares the motives of different sexual-romantic orientations and their preferred ways of fulfilling this desire.

METHODS

This was a monocentric cross-sectional study. Subjects were recruited via social media, personal contacts and queer organisations in Switzerland. An anonymous questionnaire comprised general questions about the participant's background, a validated survey about the desire to have children and additional non-validated questions addressing the impact of sexual-romantic orientation on the desire to have children. The inclusion criteria were adults without children and a completed questionnaire.

RESULTS

Of 837 participants, 642 were included in the study. Four groups of sexual-romantic orientations consisted of more than 35 participants: bisexual-biromantic (n = 38), heterosexual-heteroromantic (n = 230), homosexual-homoromantic (n = 159) and pansexual-panromantic (n = 55). Subgroups with a positive wish for a child rated all motives in the same order and with minimal numeric difference. The most important aspect seemed to be emotional involvement. Non-heterosexual-heteroromantic showed concerns about adverse reactions regarding their wish for a child. All orientations hoped for a biological child.

CONCLUSION

Our findings about bi-, hetero-, homo- and pansexual people and their motives for a desire to have children agree with the existing literature about hetero, homo and bisexual. The impact of the fear of adverse reaction and discrimination has been discussed before and is supported by our data. We suggest better support before and during the realization of the wish for a child as well as support for non-traditional aspiring parents.

Gay Fatherhood Experiences and Challenges Through the Lens of Minority Stress Theory

Gay-fatherhood raises questions about hegemonic gender norms and traditional family systems in different contexts and countries. This study explores gay fathers' desires, motivations, and experiences of having a child. Participants' challenges and concerns regarding having and raising children also were explored. Data were obtained through in-person interviews of 11 self-identified gay fathers. The data were then analyzed using interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) analysis. The analytical results identified three themes that shed light on participants' desires and experiences of parenthood. These were: (1) innate motives to parent and gender role strains, (2) enacted stigma (i.e., acts of rejection due to sexual orientation and traditional gender roles), and (3) children's social rejection due to their parents' sexuality. The findings of this study stress the influence of contextual factors (stigma) and intrapersonal factors (internalized anti-gay prejudice) in participants' health and well-being. This study potentially tries to expand cultural awareness of research in this field.

Romantic Attachment, Relationship Satisfaction, Internalized Sexual Stigma, and Motives for Parenthood in Italian Lesbian Women and Gay Men

This study examines romantic attachment, internalized sexual stigma, relationship satisfaction, and motives for parenthood in a sample of 313 Italian lesbian women (47.9%) and gay men (52.1%) aged 18-71 years (M = 36.2; SD = 11.9) and in same-sex relationships. The following hypotheses were tested: that romantic attachment is positively correlated with internalized stigma and motives to not have children, while it is negatively correlated with relationship satisfaction; that relationship satisfaction is negatively correlated with internalized stigma and motives for parenthood; that internalized stigma is negatively correlated with motives for parenthood; and that relationship satisfaction mediates the relationships between romantic attachment and motives for parenthood and between internalized stigma and motives for parenthood. The results strongly support the hypotheses. Furthermore, the results indicate that the lesbian participants reported lower levels of avoidance and internalized stigma and higher levels of relationship satisfaction and motives to not have children, and the participants in civil unions reported lower levels of anxiety and internalized stigma and higher levels of relationship satisfaction and motives to not have children. Taken together, our findings contribute to the growing body of research on LG parenthood and may inform social policy and psychological support for LG individuals pursuing parenthood.

The Mediating Role of Insecure Attachment in the Gap in Parenthood Desire between Lesbian and Gay Individuals and Their Heterosexual Counterparts

Previous studies have shown that lesbian and gay (LG) individuals, in comparison to their heterosexual counterparts, tend to report lower levels of parenthood desire. While numerous variables have been suggested to explain this gap in parenthood aspirations, no study has investigated the mediating role of avoidant attachment in the association between sexual orientation and parenthood desire. For that purpose, a sample of 790 cisgender Israelis aged 18-49 years (M = 28.27, SD = 4.76) was recruited using convenience sampling. Among the participants, 345 self-reported as predominantly or exclusively lesbian or gay and 445 self-reported as exclusively heterosexual. Participants completed online questionnaires assessing their sociodemographic characteristics, parenthood desire, and avoidant and anxious attachment styles. Mediation analyses were performed using the PROCESS macro, and the results revealed that LG individuals reported lower parenthood desire, higher avoidant attachment, and higher anxious attachment compared to heterosexual individuals. Moreover, avoidant attachment had a significant mediation effect in the association between sexual orientation and parenthood desire. The findings suggest that LG individuals are more likely to report higher avoidant attachment due to possible rejection and discrimination from family members and peers, and this may be associated with lower parenthood desire. The results contribute to the growing body of research on family formation and parenthood aspirations among LG individuals, and specifically studies aimed at delineating the factors that contribute to the gap in parenthood aspirations between sexual minority individuals and their heterosexual counterparts.

Life Events and Loneliness Among Older Women of Diverse Sexual Identities: Application of the Stress Process Model

Loneliness among older adults has been a topic of interest in recent years. We analyse four waves of data from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. We estimate growth models to examine differences in loneliness trajectories from age 50 for women who identify as exclusively heterosexual, plurisexual (bisexual, mainly heterosexual, mainly lesbian) and exclusively lesbian. We find no significant differences in levels of loneliness across sexual identity groups at age 50. We find that while loneliness trajectories of exclusively heterosexual women trend down, levels of loneliness increase with age among plurisexual women. Adverse health events and relationship problems increase loneliness to a greater extent among plurisexual women compared to exclusively heterosexual and exclusively lesbian women. Our results suggest older lesbian women may have accumulated social or personal resources or developed coping mechanisms over the courses of their lives, while plurisexual women remain a vulnerable group.

Future parenting aspirations and minority stress in U.S. sexual minority adults

Parenthood is an aspiration shared by a majority of U.S. adults. However, previous research has found that sexual minority adults (e.g., lesbian, gay, bisexual [LGB]) are less likely than heterosexual counterparts to be parents or desire to become parents in the future. To date, few studies have examined how minority stress (i.e., everyday discrimination [ED], felt stigma [FS], and internalized homophobia [IH]) influences parenting desire, parenting likelihood, and expectation a gap between the two. Even fewer studies have examined the parenting aspirations of sexual minority individuals following nationwide legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States. We analyzed data from 487 childfree lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer participants from two cohorts ("equality cohort": ages 18-25; "visibility" cohort: ages 34-41) from the Generations study, a national probability sample of sexual minority adults in the United States. As expected, we found that the visibility cohort adults had significantly lower parenting desire and parenting likelihood, and a greater parenting expectation gap than the equality cohort adults. Additionally, while everyday discrimination (ED) did not predict parenting aspirations, IH and FS predicted higher parenting desire and lower parenting likelihood, respectively. We found a cohort by FS interaction such that FS predicted even lower parenting likelihood in the visibility cohort adults. Our findings contribute to a growing body of research on sexual minority parenthood and may inform community practice and clinical support for sexual minority adults who pursue parenthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The Prospective Co-Parenting Relationship Scale (PCRS) for Sexual Minority and Heterosexual People: Preliminary Validation

The coparenting relationship begins with a process of planning and negotiation about having children. Available psychological instruments have not been adapted to sexual minority people, which compromises their ecological validity. This mixed method study aimed to adapt and validate a prospective version of the Co-Parenting Relationship Scale in a Portuguese sample of sexual minority and heterosexual adults who did not have children and who were in a dyadic relationship. In study 1, cognitive interviews were used to gather participants’ reflections about the original items and the role played by the family of origin and anticipated stigma in coparenting (n = 6). In study 2, using a sample of individuals from 18 to 45 years old, two Exploratory Factor Analyses (EFA) were conducted separately for sexual minority (n = 167) and heterosexual persons (n = 198), and a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted for heterosexual persons (n = 176). Results showed underscored the importance of families of origin independent of sexual orientation. Different factorial structures for sexual minority and heterosexual persons were observed. Among sexual minority persons, the role of stigma was also highlighted. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

What We Know and What Remains to Be Explored about LGBTQ Parent Families in Israel: A Sociocultural Perspective

This paper reviews research on gay and lesbian parent families in Israel through cultural lenses while recognizing the diversity of these families. The major aims of the review are: (1) to provide an overview of the situation of LGBTQ parent families in Israel, as well as of the sociocultural background of the Israeli context and its effects on sexual minorities and LGBTQ parent families; and (2) to identify the limitations and lacunas in the existing research and shed light on what remains to be explored. We searched numerous databases for relevant studies, adopting a narrative approach to summarize the main findings while taking into account the literature on the socio-cultural context in Israel and its impact on sexual minorities and LGBTQ parent families. The search yielded empirical results only for gay and lesbian parent families, with studies emphasizing the challenges they face and the factors related to their well-being and that of LGB individuals aspiring to become parents. In addition, it revealed that research on children’s psychosocial adjustment as a function of parental sexual orientation is quite scarce in Israel. Moreover, it indicated the absence of investigations of bisexual, transgender, or queer parents. We conclude that the sociocultural context of Israel, including its pronatalist and familistic orientation, may play an important role in shaping the experiences of LGBTQ parent families, and should be taken into consideration when studying LGBTQ parents.

Experiences of gestational surrogacy for gay men in Canada

This paper reports on findings from a qualitative study that examined how Canada's socio-political context influenced gestational surrogacy for same-sex male couples. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with gay fathers and gestational surrogates to investigate supports and barriers of pursuing surrogacy. Questions explored publicly available information, policies and practices of fertility clinics and hospitals, post-birth resources and cultural attitudes regarding same-sex parenthood. Findings suggest that in Canada, a global leader in LGBT rights and inclusive same-sex parenting legislation, participants encountered inadequate same-sex inclusive resources and insufficient provider competencies. The aim of this study was to inform individual and institutional recommendations to counteract biases in fertility care and post-birth services. Following interview analysis, five key strategies were identified: (1) more accessible information on paths to same-sex parenthood; (2) more inclusive fertility clinic and hospital practices; (3) recognition of same-sex fatherhood in formal documentation; (4) post-birth resources such as formula feeding, play groups and first aid courses intended for same-sex parent families; and (5) shifts in cultural attitudes of same-sex parenthood and, specifically, gay fatherhood. Approaches that subvert heteronormative discourses embedded in fertility and reproduction are required to legitimise and support same-sex parent families.

Delaying, debating and declining motherhood

Trends of delayed childbearing have accompanied declining birth rates and increasing numbers of childless adults in the USA. Women may postpone parenting in order to save money, find a partner, and get a 'family-friendly' job, but this reproductive strategy may not always be effective. This paper uses two waves of longitudinal data to track childless women's reproductive decision-making and behaviours. During wave 1, interviews were conducted with 72 childless US women between the ages of 25 and 40 about their reproductive desires and intentions. Approximately four years later, a subset of the original sample participated in surveys to assess consistencies between fertility intentions and outcomes, and in-depth interviews to elicit information about changes in their lives that transpired. Whereas some wave 2 participants had fulfilled their goal of becoming parents, the majority were still employing a delaying strategy or had declined to have children. Delayed childbearing was individually strategic for those who could garner resources to be in a better financial or social position to have and raise children, while others kept facing barriers that prevented them from realising their reproductive goals or changed their mind about their fertility intentions and desires.

Sexual Orientation Among Unmarried Final Year University Students in Osun State: Distribution, Determinants and Level of Satisfaction

BACKGROUND

Sexual Orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction, with the attractions broadly incorporated under heterosexuality and non-heterosexuality. Societal and other factors seem to affect individuals' perception of their self-identified orientation. Thus, this study sets out to document the distribution of sexual orientation, level of self-reported satisfaction, and factors associated with sexual orientation among unmarried university students.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study involving 550 respondents sampled using a multi-stage sampling technique. Data collected via a self-administered questionnaire and analyzed via IBM SPSS version 20.0.

RESULTS

Most respondents (93.6%) were heterosexuals, 4.7% bisexuals, 1.3% lesbian women and 0.40% gay men. More heterosexuals (80.4%) were fully satisfied with their self-identified sexual orientation compared to 57.2% of non-heterosexuals. Respondents who had religious upbringing and those whose parents were currently married were less likely to have sexual orientation outside of heterosexuality.

CONCLUSION

The most prevalent sexual orientation was heterosexuality, with more heterosexuals also expressing satisfaction than others. With the level of dissatisfaction expressed by those who are not heterosexuals as well as the factors associated with heterosexuality, it is plausible to conclude that societal values and/or prejudices constitute major factors in individuals self-identifying with some particular sexual orientation and the satisfaction derived therein.

Anticipating Parenthood Among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Young Adults Without Children in Portugal: Predictors and Profiles

Parenthood is a highly valued life goal, independent of one’s sexual orientation. However, the majority of studies exploring young adults’ parenthood plans have relied exclusively on samples of heterosexual individuals. This study aimed (i) to explore differences in parenthood intentions as a function of sexual orientation, (ii) to investigate to what extent sociodemographic and psychological characteristics predict parenthood intentions of lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB), and heterosexual individuals, (iii) to test the mediating effect of stigma between sexual orientation and parenthood intentions, and (iv) to identify and characterize profiles of prospective parenthood (through cluster analysis). Data were gathered using an online survey from 375 self-identified LGB and heterosexual young adults without children in Portugal, with a mean age of 25.83 years old (SD = 4.49). Findings indicated that LGB individuals were less likely to intend to have children than heterosexual individuals; furthermore, among LGB individuals, lesbian women expressed stronger intentions to have children than did gay men. Similarities between heterosexual and LGB young adults were observed concerning the psychological determinants of parenthood intentions. Four distinctive profiles of prospective parenthood were identified: aspiring parents not anticipating stigma, aspiring parents anticipating stigma, childfree intent, and childfree ambivalent. Lesbian and bisexual women mostly populated the childfree ambivalent cluster; in contrast, the aspiring parents anticipating stigma cluster contained an overrepresentation of men, including sexual minority men. Professionals may want to attend to communalities and specificities of prospective parenthood as a function of sexual orientation, in order to provide unbiased and culturally competent support to sexual minority individuals.

Anticipating Parenthood Among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Young Adults Without Children in Portugal: Predictors and Profiles

Parenthood is a highly valued life goal, independent of one's sexual orientation. However, the majority of studies exploring young adults' parenthood plans have relied exclusively on samples of heterosexual individuals. This study aimed (i) to explore differences in parenthood intentions as a function of sexual orientation, (ii) to investigate to what extent sociodemographic and psychological characteristics predict parenthood intentions of lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB), and heterosexual individuals, (iii) to test the mediating effect of stigma between sexual orientation and parenthood intentions, and (iv) to identify and characterize profiles of prospective parenthood (through cluster analysis). Data were gathered using an online survey from 375 self-identified LGB and heterosexual young adults without children in Portugal, with a mean age of 25.83 years old (SD = 4.49). Findings indicated that LGB individuals were less likely to intend to have children than heterosexual individuals; furthermore, among LGB individuals, lesbian women expressed stronger intentions to have children than did gay men. Similarities between heterosexual and LGB young adults were observed concerning the psychological determinants of parenthood intentions. Four distinctive profiles of prospective parenthood were identified: aspiring parents not anticipating stigma, aspiring parents anticipating stigma, childfree intent, and childfree ambivalent. Lesbian and bisexual women mostly populated the childfree ambivalent cluster; in contrast, the aspiring parents anticipating stigma cluster contained an overrepresentation of men, including sexual minority men. Professionals may want to attend to communalities and specificities of prospective parenthood as a function of sexual orientation, in order to provide unbiased and culturally competent support to sexual minority individuals.

Desire for Parenthood in Context of Other Life Aspirations Among Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Young Adults

Research has established that sexual minority young adults generally report fewer desires and fewer expectations for parenthood than do their heterosexual peers. Little is known, however, about other desires and expectations. Is parenthood the only domain in which lesbian and gay individuals report fewer desires and expectations than their heterosexual peers? Or do lower aspirations among lesbian and gay adults about parenthood also occur in other domains, such as marriage and work? In this study, we explored a variety of desires and expectations for the future among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual young adults. Participants for this internet survey were recruited via social media, and included 368 childless cisgender young adults (211 lesbian or gay and 157 heterosexual) living in the United States. There were three main findings. First, while lesbian/gay individuals were less likely than heterosexual participants to express desire for parenthood, desires in the other future domains did not vary across sexual orientation. Lesbian/gay participants were as likely as heterosexual individuals to desire marriage, friendships, and community connections, as well as career and economic success. Results for expectations were, however, very different. Lesbian/gay participants were less likely than heterosexual individuals to expect that they would marry, become parents, feel connected to a community, achieve meaningful careers, live in their ideal housing, or that they would attain financial stability. Thus, although desires were largely unrelated to sexual orientation, many expectations were strongly linked to it. Lesbian and gay individuals were also far more likely than their heterosexual peers to desire future goals that they did not expect to achieve. Overall, for lesbian/gay young adults, low parenthood aspirations were part of a general pattern of low expectations (though not reduced desires) across a number of life domains.

Sexual minority women's attitudes toward infants, children, and parenthood

Little is known about the experiences of lesbian and bisexual women with infants or children or about their views on trade-offs required by parenthood. In this study, we examined how reactions to experiences with infants/children, perceived trade-offs of parenthood, and self-reported nurturance vary as a function of women's sexual orientation. Two hundred cisgender childless women (53 lesbian, 57 plurisexual, 90 heterosexual) from the United States, recruited via social media, participated in this study. Results showed that lesbian women reported more negative attitudes toward infants/children and parenthood than did heterosexual women. Self-reported nurturance did not differ as a function of sexual orientation. Overall, lesbian women reported that they had less favorable experiences with infants and/or children and that they anticipated more social and economic costs involved with parenthood than did heterosexual women. Lesbian women also reported lower aspirations for parenthood than heterosexual women, and this was largely accounted for by differences in perceptions of the trade-offs involved with parenthood. Plurisexual women did not differ from lesbian or heterosexual women on any outcome. These results contribute to our understanding of why lesbian women are, on average, less likely than heterosexual women to aspire to parenthood.

Parenting desires, parenting intentions, and anticipation of stigma upon parenthood among lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women in Portugal

We explored parenting desires, parenting intentions, and anticipation of stigma upon parenthood in a sample of 257 self-identified lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual childfree women in Portugal. No differences between the groups were observed concerning parenting desires. However, lesbian and bisexual women reported lower intentions to have children than their heterosexual counterparts. Although lesbian women considered themselves to have a higher chance of being victims of social stigma as mothers, this was not associated with their parenting desires. Furthermore, younger lesbian women intended to have children to a greater extent than did older lesbian women; relational status did not relate to lesbian women's parenting intentions, desires, or anticipation of stigma. Overall, this study contributes to knowledge about family formation processes among Portuguese women diverse in sexual identity.