Age differences in concept formation

Age-related differences in valence and arousal of emotion concepts

Emotion concepts are representations that enable people to make sense of their own and others’ emotions. The present study, theoretically driven by the conceptual act theory, explores the overall spectrum of emotion concepts in older adults and compares them with the emotion concepts of younger adults. Data from 178 older adults (⩾55 years) and 176 younger adults (20–30 years) were collected using the Semantic Emotion Space Assessment task. The arousal and valence of 16 discrete emotions – anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, hope, love, hate, contempt, guilt, compassion, shame, gratefulness, envy, disappointment, and jealousy – were rated by the participants on a graphic scale bar. The results show that (a) older and younger adults did not differ in the mean valence ratings of emotion concepts, which indicates that older adults do not differ from younger adults in the way they conceptualise how pleasant or unpleasant emotions are. Furthermore, (b) older men rated emotion concepts as more arousing than younger men, (c) older adults rated sadness, disgust, contempt, guilt, and compassion as more arousing and (d) jealousy as less arousing than younger adults. The results of the present study indicate that age-related differentiation of conceptual knowledge seems to proceed more in the way that individuals understand how arousing their subjective representations of emotions are rather than how pleasant they are.

Mental Flexibility Influences the Association Between Poor Balance and Falls in Older People - A Secondary Analysis

Impairments of balance predispose older people to falls. Some cognitive functions, especially executive functioning have been shown to affect balance and discriminate fallers from non-fallers. Mental flexibility is a component of the executive function and comprises multiple cognitive processes that work together to adjust the course of thoughts or actions according to the changing demands of a situation without the use of explicit instructions. However, the role of mental flexibility in balance in older people remains unclear. The study aim was to examine the relationship between mental flexibility and falls in a cohort of 212 older people (80.6 ± 4.9 years; 62% female). We hypothesized that: (i) participants with impaired balance would have worse mental flexibility compared to those with good balance; and (ii) poor mental flexibility would predict falls in the sub-group with impaired balance. Balance performance was assessed by measuring postural sway while standing on a medium density foam mat with eyes open for 30 s. Mental flexibility was assessed using a computerized short-form of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST; 64 cards) with its sub-components comprising general performance, perseveration, failure-to-maintain set and conceptual ability. Falls were measured prospectively for 12-months using monthly calendars. MANCOVA revealed that WCST performance was associated with balance [Wilks' Lambda = 0.883, F = 2.168; p = 0.013, partial eta squared ( η p 2 ) = 0.061] due primarily to reduced concept formation ability [F _(2,207) = 5.787, p = 0.004, η p 2 = 0.053]. Negative binomial regression analysis adjusting for age, education, contrast sensitivity, proprioception, inhibition, and inhibitory choice stepping reaction time (iCSRT) revealed that lower concept formation ability was predictive for falls [Incidence Rate Ratio 1.048 (95% confidence interval 1.016-1.081)]. Further, lower concept formation ability partly explained the association between balance and falls: i.e., fallers in the upper balance tertile had reduced concept formation performance whereas non-fallers had similar concept formation performance across the three balance tertiles. These findings suggest that poor mental flexibility affects the ability to maintain steady balance contributing to increased risk of falls in older people.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Neurobehavioral Deficits Associated With Prenatal Alcohol Exposure

In utero alcohol exposure can disrupt the development of the fetal brain and result in a wide range of neurobehavioral outcomes collectively known as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). This paper provides a comprehensive review of the cognitive and behavioral outcomes of prenatal alcohol exposure, including domains of general intelligence, executive functioning, language development, learning and memory, adaptive functioning, academic performance, and concurrent psychopathology. In addition, the current status of the neurobehavioral profile of FASD and its potential as a diagnostic tool will be discussed.

Left frontal lobe contributions to concept formation: a quantitative MRI study of performance on the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System Sorting Test

This study examined relationships between lobar volumes and performance on the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) Sorting Test, a standardized measure of concept formation. There were 89 participants: 19 patients with probable Alzheimer's disease, 25 patients with frontotemporal dementia, 13 patients with semantic dementia, 12 patients with progressive nonfluent aphasia, 9 patients with probable progressive supranuclear palsy, 2 patients with possible progressive supranuclear palsy, and 9 healthy participants. We used BRAINS2 software to generate volumes of the right and left frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. Multiple regression analysis indicated that, after controlling for Mini-Mental State Examination scores, intracranial volume, and demographic variables, only the left frontal lobe significantly predicted performance on the D-KEFS Sorting Test.

Children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure demonstrate deficits on multiple measures of concept formation

BACKGROUND

Children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure have documented impairments in executive functioning (EF). One component of EF, concept formation, has not been well studied in this group.

METHODS

Children (8 to 18 years) with histories of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure, with and without fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), were compared to typically developing controls on 2 measures of concept formation and conceptual set shifting: the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the Card Sorting Test from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Functioning System. In addition to between-group comparisons, performance relative to overall intellectual functioning was examined.

RESULTS

Children with histories of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure showed impairment on both tests of concept formation compared to non-exposed controls. These deficits included difficulty generating and verbalizing concepts, increased error rates and perseverative responses, and poorer response to feedback. However, in comparison to controls, alcohol-exposed children performed better on measures of concept formation than predicted by their overall IQ scores. Exploratory analyses suggest that this may be due to differences in how the measures relate at different IQ levels and may not be specific to prenatal alcohol exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

Deficits in concept formation and conceptual set shifting were observed in alcohol-exposed children with or without the diagnosis of FAS and in the absence of mental retardation. These deficits likely impact problem solving skills and adaptive functioning and have implications for therapeutic interventions in this population.