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Schäfer S, Tröger J, Kray J. Modern scores for traditional tests - Review of the diagnostic potential of scores derived from word list learning tests in mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer's Disease. Neuropsychologia 2024; 201:108908. [PMID: 38744410 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Episodic memory impairment is one of the early hallmarks in Alzheimer's Disease. In the clinical diagnosis and research, episodic memory impairment is typically assessed using word lists that are repeatedly presented to and recalled by the participant across several trials. Until recently, total learning scores, which consist of the total number of words that are recalled by participants, were almost exclusively used for diagnostic purposes. The present review aims at summarizing evidence on additional scores derived from the learning trials which have recently been investigated more frequently regarding their diagnostic potential. These scores reflect item acquisition, error frequencies, strategy use, intertrial fluctuations, and recall consistency. Evidence was summarized regarding the effects of clinical status on these scores. Preclinical, mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimer's Disease stages were associated with a pattern of reduced item acquisition, more errors, less strategy use, and reduced access of items, indicating slowed and erroneous encoding. Practical implications and limitations of the present research will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jutta Kray
- Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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2
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Lange LS, Chrysidou A, Liu P, Kuehn E. Tactile memory impairments in younger and older adults. Sci Rep 2024; 14:11766. [PMID: 38783038 PMCID: PMC11116509 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-62683-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Human tactile memory allows us to remember and retrieve the multitude of somatosensory experiences we undergo in everyday life. An unsolved question is how tactile memory mechanisms change with increasing age. We here use the ability to remember fine-grained tactile patterns passively presented to the fingertip to investigate age-related changes in tactile memory performance. In experiment 1, we varied the degree of similarity between one learned and several new tactile patterns to test on age-related changes in the "uniqueness" of a stored tactile memory trace. In experiment 2, we varied the degree of stimulus completeness of both known and new tactile patterns to test on age-related changes in the weighting between known and novel tactile information. Results reveal that older adults show only weak impairments in both precision and bias of tactile memories, however, they show specific deficits in reaching peak performance > 85% in both experiments. In addition, both younger and older adults show a pattern completion bias for touch, indicating a higher weighting of known compared to new information. These results allow us to develop new models on how younger and older adults store and recall tactile experiences of the past, and how this influences their everyday behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilith-Sophie Lange
- Institute for Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Medical Faculty, Otto-Von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Anastasia Chrysidou
- Institute for Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Medical Faculty, Otto-Von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Peng Liu
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otfried-Müller Straße 23, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Straße 27, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Esther Kuehn
- Institute for Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Medical Faculty, Otto-Von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otfried-Müller Straße 23, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Straße 27, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
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3
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López-Pérez J, García-Herranz S, Díaz-Mardomingo MDC. Acquisition and consolidation of verbal learning and episodic memory as predictors of the conversion from mild cognitive impairment to probable Alzheimer's disease. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENT, AND COGNITION. SECTION B, AGING, NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2023; 30:638-653. [PMID: 35475773 DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2022.2069670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Verbal episodic memory tests assess memory performance using total learning scores. The analysis of inter-trial indices such as gained (GA) and lost (LA) access can provide additional information on the acquisition and consolidation processes. The main objetive was to determine whether the GA and LA indices, derived from a word-list verbal episodic memory test are useful for predicting cognitive impairment in aging. 60 older people aged was divided into 3 groups: cognitively healthy, stable Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and MCI converting to probable Alzheimer's disease (MCI-conv). The results showed that GA and LA measures are independent from the traditional measures -total score of correct answers-. Logistic regression showed that these values are predictive of the conversion over time and could be a cognitive marker of conversion from MCI to AD. This suggests that the GA index, which shows acquisition processes in word-list tests, may be a marker of cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge López-Pérez
- Department of Basic Psychology I, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sara García-Herranz
- Department of Basic Psychology II, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Mixto de Investigación-Escuela Nacional de Sanidad (IMIENS), Madrid, Spain
| | - María Del Carmen Díaz-Mardomingo
- Department of Basic Psychology I, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Mixto de Investigación-Escuela Nacional de Sanidad (IMIENS), Madrid, Spain
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The Role of Entropy in Construct Specification Equations (CSE) to Improve the Validity of Memory Tests: Extension to Word Lists. ENTROPY 2022; 24:e24070934. [PMID: 35885157 PMCID: PMC9324731 DOI: 10.3390/e24070934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Metrological methods for word learning list tests can be developed with an information theoretical approach extending earlier simple syntax studies. A classic Brillouin entropy expression is applied to the analysis of the Rey’s Auditory Verbal Learning Test RAVLT (immediate recall), where more ordered tasks—with less entropy—are easier to perform. The findings from three case studies are described, including 225 assessments of the NeuroMET2 cohort of persons spanning a cognitive spectrum from healthy older adults to patients with dementia. In the first study, ordinality in the raw scores is compensated for, and item and person attributes are separated with the Rasch model. In the second, the RAVLT IR task difficulty, including serial position effects (SPE), particularly Primacy and Recency, is adequately explained (Pearson’s correlation R=0.80) with construct specification equations (CSE). The third study suggests multidimensionality is introduced by SPE, as revealed through goodness-of-fit statistics of the Rasch analyses. Loading factors common to two kinds of principal component analyses (PCA) for CSE formulation and goodness-of-fit logistic regressions are identified. More consistent ways of defining and analysing memory task difficulties, including SPE, can maintain the unique metrological properties of the Rasch model and improve the estimates and understanding of a person’s memory abilities on the path towards better-targeted and more fit-for-purpose diagnostics.
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Carpendale EJ, Cullen AE, Dickson H, Laurens KR. Dissociable impairments of verbal learning differentiate childhood risk profiles for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res Cogn 2022; 28:100239. [PMID: 35242608 PMCID: PMC8861403 DOI: 10.1016/j.scog.2022.100239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Poor verbal learning and memory function is well-documented among individuals with schizophrenia and those at clinical high-risk for psychosis. This study aimed to identify these impairments among children aged 9–12 years with different schizophrenia risk profiles (family history or antecedents of schizophrenia, each of higher[H] or lower[L] risk load) relative to typically developing peers. These three groups were recruited via community-screening, and differentiated for analysis into: typically developing children (TD = 45); children who had 1 first- or ≥2 second-degree affected relatives (FHxH = 16) or one second-degree relative (FHxL = 15); and children presenting multiple replicated antecedents of schizophrenia whose clinical symptoms persisted at 2- and/or 4-year follow-up (ASzH = 16) or remitted during follow-up (ASzL = 16). Verbal learning/memory measures assessed at baseline (age 9–12 years) included: (i) total recall; (ii) trial 1 recall; (iii) learning score; (iv) intrusions; (v) total words lost; and (vi) serial position patterns. Analyses of variance indicated that FHxH and ASzH youth demonstrated impaired total recall compared to TD and ASzL children and lost significantly more words between trials than TD and FHxL children. Learning score was impaired among both FHxH and FHxL relative to TD and ASzL children. Thus, among putatively at-risk children, total words recalled and lost distinguished those with higher risk load (by family history or persistent antecedent symptomology), whereas learning score indexed familial vulnerability. Follow-up of the sample is needed to determine the capacity of verbal learning deficits to predict later illness and provide a potential avenue for early remediation to improve clinical or functional outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma J. Carpendale
- Queensland University of Technology (QUT), School of Psychology and Counselling, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Alexis E. Cullen
- King's College London, Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah Dickson
- King's College London, Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kristin R. Laurens
- Queensland University of Technology (QUT), School of Psychology and Counselling, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- King's College London, Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
- University of New South Wales, School of Psychiatry, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Corresponding author at: School of Psychology and Counselling, O Block, B Wing, Level 5, Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, QLD 4059, Australia.
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Boenniger MM, Staerk C, Coors A, Huijbers W, Ettinger U, Breteler MMB. Ten German versions of Rey's auditory verbal learning test: Age and sex effects in 4,000 adults of the Rhineland Study. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2021; 43:637-653. [PMID: 34636711 DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2021.1984398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Detecting early pathological cognitive decline is critical for dementia and aging-related research and clinical diagnostics. Rey's Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) is commonly used to measure episodic verbal memory. The test requires participants to learn a list of 15 words over several trials. Since multiple testing is often required to detect cognitive decline, but repeating the same test can bias results, we developed 10 German AVLT word lists. METHOD We randomly assigned the lists to 4,000 participants (aged 30-94 years) from a population-based cohort to test their comparability, as well as aging effects and sex differences. RESULTS Nine lists were highly comparable, with only one being slightly more difficult. Recall performance decreased on average by 0.6-1.1 words per trial per decade of age. Perseveration errors decreased with increasing age. Women remembered on average between 0.8 and 1.5 words per trial more than men, regardless of age. Women also outperformed men in the sum of Trials 1-5, learning over trials, retroactive inhibition, and false-positive and interference errors. Proactive inhibition remained stable across age and was unaffected by sex. CONCLUSION This German AVLT version presents comparable lists including detailed age and sex references and therefore allows test repetition excluding training effects. These versions are a valuable resource for research and clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meta M Boenniger
- Population Health Sciences, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Christian Staerk
- Institute for Medical Biometry, Informatics and Epidemiology (IMBIE), Faculty of Medicine, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Annabell Coors
- Population Health Sciences, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Willem Huijbers
- Population Health Sciences, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Monique M B Breteler
- Population Health Sciences, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany.,Institute for Medical Biometry, Informatics and Epidemiology (IMBIE), Faculty of Medicine, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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Blachstein H, Vakil E. Life span strategy implementation in verbal learning: size and type of cluster adoption. AGING NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2021; 29:965-984. [PMID: 34402748 DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2021.1946472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Temporal and semantic associative processes during the acquisition of new verbal information undergo various changes across the life span. Temporal order clusters and subjective clusters were monitored during verbal learning trials using the Rey (Auditory Verbal Learning Task) for 1471 participants aged 8-91. Pairs, three-word, and four-word clusters were measured. Subjective clusters were generated at similar frequency across the whole life span. By contrast, a clear inverted-U curve across life span was indicated for temporal clusters. More words were subjectively clustered than clustered by temporal presentation order. The number of words clustered increased across trials, and cluster types showed a different increase profile across trials. The subjective cluster increment was faster and steeper than the temporal cluster increment in most of the age segments. Life span trajectory tendencies in the formation of temporal and semantic associations in recall were interpreted in relation to different frameworks of cognitive life span changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haya Blachstein
- Department of Psychology and Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Eli Vakil
- Department of Psychology and Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
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Walhovd KB, Bråthen ACS, Panizzon MS, Mowinckel AM, Sørensen Ø, de Lange AMG, Krogsrud SK, Håberg A, Franz CE, Kremen WS, Fjell AM. Within-session verbal learning slope is predictive of lifespan delayed recall, hippocampal volume, and memory training benefit, and is heritable. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21158. [PMID: 33273630 PMCID: PMC7713377 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78225-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory performance results from plasticity, the ability to change with experience. We show that benefit from practice over a few trials, learning slope, is predictive of long-term recall and hippocampal volume across a broad age range and a long period of time, relates to memory training benefit, and is heritable. First, in a healthy lifespan sample (n = 1825, age 4-93 years), comprising 3483 occasions of combined magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans and memory tests over a period of up to 11 years, learning slope across 5 trials was uniquely related to performance on a delayed free recall test, as well as hippocampal volume, independent from first trial memory or total memory performance across the five learning trials. Second, learning slope was predictive of benefit from memory training across ten weeks in an experimental subsample of adults (n = 155). Finally, in an independent sample of male twins (n = 1240, age 51-50 years), learning slope showed significant heritability. Within-session learning slope may be a useful marker beyond performance per se, being heritable and having unique predictive value for long-term memory function, hippocampal volume and training benefit across the human lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine B Walhovd
- Center for Lifespan Changes in Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, POB 1094, 0317, Oslo, Norway.
- Division of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, Norway.
| | - Anne Cecilie Sjøli Bråthen
- Center for Lifespan Changes in Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, POB 1094, 0317, Oslo, Norway
| | - Matthew S Panizzon
- Department of Psychiatry and Center for Behavior Genetics of Aging, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Athanasia M Mowinckel
- Center for Lifespan Changes in Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, POB 1094, 0317, Oslo, Norway
| | - Øystein Sørensen
- Center for Lifespan Changes in Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, POB 1094, 0317, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ann-Marie G de Lange
- Center for Lifespan Changes in Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, POB 1094, 0317, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Stine Kleppe Krogsrud
- Center for Lifespan Changes in Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, POB 1094, 0317, Oslo, Norway
| | - Asta Håberg
- Department of Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Carol E Franz
- Department of Psychiatry and Center for Behavior Genetics of Aging, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - William S Kremen
- Department of Psychiatry and Center for Behavior Genetics of Aging, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Anders M Fjell
- Center for Lifespan Changes in Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, POB 1094, 0317, Oslo, Norway
- Division of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, Norway
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Williams DR, Zimprich DR, Rast P. A Bayesian nonlinear mixed-effects location scale model for learning. Behav Res Methods 2019; 51:1968-1986. [PMID: 31069713 PMCID: PMC6800615 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-019-01255-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We present a Bayesian nonlinear mixed-effects location scale model (NL-MELSM). The NL-MELSM allows for fitting nonlinear functions to the location, or individual means, and the scale, or within-person variance. Specifically, in the context of learning, this model allows the within-person variance to follow a nonlinear trajectory, where it can be determined whether variability reduces during learning. It incorporates a sub-model that can predict nonlinear parameters for both the location and scale. This specification estimates random effects for all nonlinear location and scale parameters that are drawn from a common multivariate distribution. This allows estimation of covariances among the random effects, within and across the location and the scale. These covariances offer new insights into the interplay between individual mean structures and intra-individual variability in nonlinear parameters. We take a fully Bayesian approach, not only for ease of estimation but also for inference because it provides the necessary and consistent information for use in psychological applications, such as model selection and hypothesis testing. To illustrate the model, we use data from 333 individuals, consisting of three age groups, who participated in five learning trials that assessed verbal memory. In an exploratory context, we demonstrate that fitting a nonlinear function to the within-person variance, and allowing for individual variation therein, improves predictive accuracy compared to customary modeling techniques (e.g., assuming constant variance). We conclude by discussing the usefulness, limitations, and future directions of the NL-MELSM.
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van Tetering MAJ, de Groot RHM, Jolles J. Boy-Girl Differences in Pictorial Verbal Learning in Students Aged 8-12 Years and the Influence of Parental Education. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1380. [PMID: 30135667 PMCID: PMC6092633 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
This large-scale cross-sectional study of schoolchildren aged 8–12 years (N = 152) evaluates two factors which potentially determine individual differences in intentional learning: the child’s sex and parental education. Intentional learning was assessed with a newly constructed Pictorial Verbal Learning Task (PVLT). This task presents line drawings of concrete objects as to-be-remembered information instead of written or auditory presented words. The PVLT has the advantage that performance is not confounded by individual differences in reading or hearing abilities. Results revealed clear sex differences in performance: Girls outperformed boys. Parental education also contributed to individual differences in performance since children of higher educated parents outperformed children of lower educated parents. The results therefore suggest that both sex and parental education could be potent contributors to individual differences in learning performance at school. The findings more specifically imply that children of less educated parents and boys need additional guidance and support in intentional learning when new information and procedures are presented for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marleen A J van Tetering
- Centre for Brain and Learning, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Renate H M de Groot
- Welten Institute, Research Centre for Learning, Teaching and Technology, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, Netherlands.,NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Jelle Jolles
- Centre for Brain and Learning, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Kawai M, Beaudreau SA, Gould CE, Hantke NC, Cotto I, Jordan JT, Hirst RB, O'Hara R. Longitudinal association of delta activity at sleep onset with cognitive and affective function in community-dwelling older adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2016; 31:1124-35. [PMID: 27554208 DOI: 10.1002/gps.4554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This investigation sought to determine whether delta activity at sleep onset (DASO) in the sleep electroencephalography of older adults represents normal variation or is associated with clinical pathology. To this end, we examined its longitudinal associations with cognitive and affective function in older adults without dementia. METHODS Participants were 153 community-dwelling older adults without dementia. We evaluated polysomnography (PSG), cognitive performance, and affective function at four time points: baseline, 12, 24, and 36 months. All participants completed PSG and measures of global cognition, delayed verbal memory, information processing speed, attention, inhibition, verbal naming, visuospatial ability, and measures of anxiety and depression. DASO was defined as sequences of rhythmic anterior delta activity on PSG in the transition from awake to sleep during the baseline assessment (Figure ). RESULTS At the baseline, 83 women and 70 men, mean age 71.3 ± 0.6 years participated and 19.6% of participants exhibited DASO. Age, years of education, gender, and body mass index did not differ according to DASO status. Linear mixed modeling showed that the presence of DASO was actually associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression. Further, participants with DASO, versus those without DASO, exhibited a trend towards better cognitive performance over time, although none of these associations reached statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS Whereas DASO was associated with better affective function, no significant association was found between DASO and cognitive change over time. These longitudinal findings support the view that the presence of DASO in healthy older adults represents normal variation rather than pathological aging. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Kawai
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Sherry A Beaudreau
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,Sierra Pacific Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Centers, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Christine E Gould
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Nathan C Hantke
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,Sierra Pacific Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Centers, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Isabelle Cotto
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Josh T Jordan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant, International University, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Ruth O'Hara
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,Sierra Pacific Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Centers, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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