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Yeung EKL, Apperly IA, Devine RT. Measures of individual differences in adult theory of mind: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 157:105481. [PMID: 38036161 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Theory of mind (ToM), the ability to understand and reason about mental states, has been extensively studied in young children and clinical populations. A growing interest in examining ToM in adults has emerged over the past two decades, but the extent to which existing measures are suitable for studying adults, especially in detecting individual differences, remains understudied. In this systematic review of 273 studies, 75 measures used to investigate individual differences in adults' ToM were identified. Their sensitivity to individual differences, reliability, and validity were examined. Results suggest that ceiling effects were prevalent, and there was limited evidence to establish the reliability or validity of these measures due to the lack of reports of psychometric properties. Interrelations among measures were inconsistent. These findings highlight the need for future empirical and theoretical work to broaden the evidence base regarding psychometric properties of measures, to develop new measures, and to lay out more specific hypotheses about the relevance of ToM for different social outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Kit Ling Yeung
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
| | - Ian A Apperly
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Rory T Devine
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
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Stafford O, Gleeson C, Egan C, Tunney C, Rooney B, O’Keeffe F, McDermott G, Baron-Cohen S, Burke T. A 20-Year Systematic Review of the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' Test across Neurodegenerative Conditions. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1268. [PMID: 37759869 PMCID: PMC10526136 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13091268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Social cognition has a broad theoretical definition, which includes the ability to mentalise, i.e., recognise and infer mental states to explain and predict another's behaviour. There is growing recognition of the clinical, diagnostic, and prognostic value of assessing a person's ability to perform social cognitive tasks, particularly aspects of theory of mind, such as mentalising. One such measure of mentalising is the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' test (RMET). This systematic review and meta-analysis consider performance on the RMET, applied to people with neurodegenerative conditions in matched control studies, since its publication in 2001. Overall, this review includes 22 papers with data from N = 800 participants with neurodegenerative conditions: Alzheimer's disease, n = 31; Parkinson's disease, n = 221; Lewy body dementia, n = 33; motor neuron disease, n = 218; Huntington's disease n = 80; multiple sclerosis, n = 217; and N = 601 matched typical controls. Our meta-analyses show that deficits in mentalising, as measured by the RMET, are consistently reported across neurodegenerative conditions, with participants in both early and late disease stages being affected. Social cognition is an emerging field of cognitive neuroscience requiring specific and sensitive measurement across each subdomain. Adult-based meta-normative data feature, for which future groups or individuals could be compared against, and hypotheses relating to the source of these mentalising deficits are further discussed. This review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020182874).
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen Stafford
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, D04 F6X4 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Christina Gleeson
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Ciara Egan
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Conall Tunney
- Acquired Brain Injury Ireland, Meath Services, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Brendan Rooney
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, D04 F6X4 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Fiadhnait O’Keeffe
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, D04 F6X4 Dublin, Ireland
- St Vincent’s University Hospital, D04 T6F4 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Garret McDermott
- Department of Psychology, Tallaght University Hospital, D24 NR0A Dublin, Ireland
| | - Simon Baron-Cohen
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, Cambridge University, Cambridge CB2 8AH, UK
| | - Tom Burke
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, D04 F6X4 Dublin, Ireland
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
- Centre for Neuroimaging, Cognition, and Genomics,University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
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Pavlova MA, Sokolov AA. Reading language of the eyes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 140:104755. [PMID: 35760388 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The need for assessment of social skills in clinical and neurotypical populations has led to the widespread, and still increasing use of the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test' (RMET) developed more than two decades ago by Simon Baron-Cohen and colleagues for evaluation of social cognition in autism. By analyzing most recent clinical and brain imaging data, we illuminate a set of factors decisive for using the RMET. Converging evidence indicates: (i) In neurotypical individuals, RMET scores are tightly correlated with other social skills (empathy, emotional intelligence, and body language reading); (ii) The RMET assesses recognition of facial affect, but also heavily relies on receptive language skills, semantic knowledge, and memory; (iii) RMET performance is underwritten by the large-scale ensembles of neural networks well-outside the social brain; (iv) The RMET is limited in its capacity to differentiate between neuropsychiatric conditions as well as between stages and severity of a single disorder, though it reliably distinguishes individuals with altered social cognition or elevated pathological traits from neurotypical persons; (v) Merely gender (as a social construct) rather than neurobiological sex influences performance on the RMET; (vi) RMET scores do not substantially decline in healthy aging, and they are higher with higher education level, cognitive abilities, literacy, and mental well-being; (vii) Accuracy on the RMET, and engagement of the social brain, are greater when emotions are expressed and recognized by individuals with similar cultural/ethnic background. Further research is required to better inform usage of the RMET as a tool for swift and reliable examination of social cognition. In light of comparable visual input from the RMET images and faces covered by masks due to COVID-19 regulations, the analysis is of value for keeping efficient social interaction during the current pandemic, in particular, in professional settings related to social communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina A Pavlova
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Menthal Health (TüCMH), Medical School and University Hospital, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Arseny A Sokolov
- Service de neuropsychologie et de neuroréhabilitation, Département des neurosciences cliniques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
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McDonald S, Genova H. The effect of severe traumatic brain injury on social cognition, emotion regulation, and mood. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2021; 183:235-260. [PMID: 34389120 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-822290-4.00011-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
This chapter provides a review of the emotional and psychosocial consequences of moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Many of the disorders affecting socioemotional function arise from damage to frontotemporal systems, exacerbated by white matter injury. They include disorders of social cognition, such as the ability to recognize emotions in others, the ability to attribute mental states to others, and the ability to experience empathy. Patients with TBI also often have disorders of emotion regulation. Disorders of drive or apathy can manifest across cognitive, emotional, and behavioral domains. Likewise, disorders of control can lead to dysregulated emotions and behavior. Other disorders, such as loss of self-awareness, are also implicated in poor psychosocial recovery. Finally, this chapter overviews psychiatric disorders associated with TBI, especially anxiety and depression. For each kind of disorder, the nature of the disorder and its prevalence, as well as theoretical considerations and impact on every day functions, are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skye McDonald
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Helen Genova
- Center for Neuropsychology and Neuroscience Research, Kessler Foundation, East Hanover, NJ, United States
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Gallant C, Luczon R, Ryan D, Good D. Investigating cannabis use and associated symptoms among university students with and without a history of concussion. Neuropsychol Rehabil 2020; 32:967-991. [PMID: 33208035 DOI: 10.1080/09602011.2020.1847148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Recently, there has been a growing interest in the use of cannabis after traumatic brain injury (TBI); however, little is known about the long-term effects of cannabis on milder injuries and post-concussive symptoms. Further, substance use often increases post-TBI and, thus, individuals who chronically use cannabis may unknowingly be exceeding safe or therapeutic doses. The current cross-sectional study explores the prevalence of cannabis use among university students with and without a history of concussion and examines the relationship between concussion and post-concussive symptoms as a function of cannabis use. Eighty-four undergraduates (n = 51 without a prior concussion; n = 33 with a prior concussion) completed a series of questionnaires, capturing their head injury history, current and past substance use, and post-concussive symptomatology. Results indicated that those with a history of concussion were more likely to use cannabis and had higher cannabis use severity scores compared to those without a previous concussion. Further, among cannabis users only, concussion severity demonstrated a significant positive association with post-concussive symptom (e.g., headaches, memory problems) severity (i.e., frequency, intensity, duration). Taken together, the long-term use of cannabis may be detrimental to individuals with a history of concussion, exacerbating, rather than mitigating, post-concussive symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn Gallant
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada
| | - Rachel Luczon
- Centre for Neuroscience, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada
| | - Dawn Ryan
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada
| | - Dawn Good
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada.,Centre for Neuroscience, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada
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Chander RJ, Grainger SA, Crawford JD, Mather KA, Numbers K, Cleary R, Kochan NA, Brodaty H, Henry JD, Sachdev PS. Development of a short-form version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test for assessing theory of mind in older adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2020; 35:1322-1330. [PMID: 32584445 DOI: 10.1002/gps.5369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (RMET) is a 36-item assessment for theory of mind (ToM) performance. While this measure has been shown to be sensitive to age-related ToM difficulties, there are no established cutoffs or guidelines currently available that are specific to older adults. This article seeks to validate a short-form version of the RMET appropriate for use in such populations. METHODS Cross-sectional data from 295 participants (mean age 86 years) from the Sydney Memory and Ageing Study, a longitudinal community observational cohort. Participants underwent an assessment battery that included the RMET. Individuals who scored >1SD below the RMET scores of cognitively normal participants were deemed to have below average RMET scores. Various model-building methods were used to generate short-form solutions of the RMET, which were compared with previously validated versions in their predictive power for below average full RMET performance. RESULTS Individuals with below average RMET performance tended to be older and have poorer global cognition. Of the eight short-form solutions, the 21-item version generated using genetic algorithm exhibited the best classification performance with an area under the receiver operating curve (AUROC) of 0.98 and had 93.2% accuracy in classifying individuals with below average ToM. A shorter 10-item solution derived by ant colony optimization also had acceptable performance. CONCLUSION We recommend the 21-item version of the RMET for use in older adult populations for identifying individuals with impaired ToM. Where an even shorter version is needed with a trade-off of slightly reduced performance, the 10-item version is acceptable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell J Chander
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CheBA), School Of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Sarah A Grainger
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - John D Crawford
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CheBA), School Of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Karen A Mather
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CheBA), School Of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia (NeuRA), Sydney, New South Wales, 2031, Australia
| | - Katya Numbers
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CheBA), School Of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Rhiagh Cleary
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CheBA), School Of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Nicole A Kochan
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CheBA), School Of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Henry Brodaty
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CheBA), School Of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia.,Dementia Collaborative Research Centre (DCRC), University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia.,Neuropsychiatric Institute, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, New South Wales, 2031, Australia
| | - Julie D Henry
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Perminder S Sachdev
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CheBA), School Of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia.,Neuropsychiatric Institute, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, New South Wales, 2031, Australia
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Israelashvili J, Sauter D, Fischer A. Two facets of affective empathy: concern and distress have opposite relationships to emotion recognition. Cogn Emot 2020; 34:1112-1122. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2020.1724893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Israelashvili
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Disa Sauter
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Agneta Fischer
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Associations between Theory of Mind and Emotion Regulation in Argentinean Adults. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-019-00539-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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